The Kashmiri Marsiya (Kạ̄shir Marsī کٲشِر مَرثی) is a commemorative and devotional literary genre that closely resembles an elegiac poem, which is primarily used to mourn the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali at the Battle of Karbala. Marsiya is a loan word in the Kashmiri language, borrowed from the Persian word (), which is itself derived from the Arabic word (). Unlike the Arabic and Persian , the Kashmiri goes beyond the constraints and conventions of an elegiac poem. In its classical form, the assumes the shape of an elaborate prose that imitates the rhythmic prose associated with the Quran. The writer of a is referred to as an author () rather than a poet ("").
History
Initial reception
The oldest trace of a in Kashmiri language dates to the 15th century CE and comprises a short, loose elegy composed on the death of a Sufi, Nund Rishi (d. 842AH/ 1438CE), by his women disciple, Sham Bibi (d. 1446). The first elegies written in Kashmiri to commemorate Husyan's martyrdom also date from the same period in works composed between the 15th and 16th centuries. These include written by two poets from the Musavi family,The descendants of the seventh Shia imam, Musa al-Kazim (d. 799CE) are known as Musavi Sayyids. Qasim bin Yusuf Din Shah, and his nephew Hakim Din ShahThe postscript written at the end of a attributed to Hakim Din Shah mentions: "This lament was written by Hakim Ibn Musa Ibn Yusuf Din Shah during the reign of Badshah". See, Hamdani, Hakim Ghulam Safdar (2009). (in Kashmiri) (2nd ed.). Delhi. Skyline Publications. in and around 811- 850 AH (1409-1446CE), during the Shahmiri Sultanate (1339-1561CE). Another work that survives is of Ahmad, a poet who hailed from Ahmadpora, a Shia centre of learning in medieval Kashmir.
Modern researchers have characterised this period commencing with the rule of Sultan Sikandar (r. 1389-1413 CE) and ending with the demise of the short-lived Shia Chak Sultanate (1561–1586 CE), as the first stage in the development of Kashmiri . Significantly contemporary medieval texts originating from within Kashmiri Shia circles make no mention of Muharram assemblies to commemorate the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, or of traditions linked with the writing of in Kashmiri.These include the tazkira originating within the Nurbakshiyya Sufi order, see, Ali, Mulla Muhammad Ali (2006). Jan, Ghulam Rasul,(transl.). Tuḥfatūl Aḥbāb (in Persian). Srinagar: Jan Publications. This includes both hagiographical works () as well as political histories () of the region authored by Shia writers.
Aside from a few anonymous works, the names of the following poets who composed in this period survive: +Kashmiri Writers ( 15th–16th century)AHQAhmadHakim bin Musa ibn Yusuf Din ShahQasim ibn Yusuf Din Shah
Development
The development of the Kashmiri coincides with Mughal (1586–1753 CE) and Afghan rule (1753–1819 CE) in Kashmir. This period saw the consolidation of Persian, both as the court language, as well as the preferred language of the urban elite, completely eclipsing native Kashmiri. Many Persian poets who arrived at the Mughal court from Persianate lands, made Kashmir their home, settling down in the capital city, Srinagar. Some, including two poet laureatesThese include Hajji Jan Muhammad Qudsi, Abu Talib Kalim Kashani, see, Sharma, Sunil (2017). Mughal Arcadia: Persian Literature in an Indian Court. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-98124-9. ( malik-u shoura) at the imperial court are buried in the cemetery of poets (Kashmiri: Mazar-i Shoura or Mazar-e-Shura) located on the foothills of Takht-i Suleiman, Srinagar. With the official promotion of Persian, the vernacular Kashmiri went through a period of steady decline. This is also witnessed in the written during this time. Ahmadpora in North Kashmir served as a major nucleus for writing during this period, with many sayyids from the RizviRizvi Sayyids trace their descent to the eighth Shia imam, Ali al-Rida (or Reza). The descendants of the tenth imam, Ali al-Naqi are also referred to as Rizvi (or Naqvi Sayyids). family following this tradition. Some of the prominent poets who composed during this time include: +Kashmiri Writers ( 17th-mid 18th century)AMQAqa Sayyid Mahmud TabriziMir Sayyid Muhammad AbbasQazi Ahmad AliBMir Sayyid Muhammad JafarQazi Ahmad DinLike Qazi Ahmad Ali, Ahmad Din was also a Sunni from the town of Varmul (Baramulla), who converted to Shiism, see, Hamdani, Hakim Ghulam Safdar (2009). Aush ti Aab (in Kashmiri) (2nd ed.). Delhi: Skyline Publications.Baba Muhammad JawadMirza Jawad Ali Khan KaaniSHMirza Jaza-al LahSayyid FakhirAccording to Shafi Shauq, Fakhir (d. 1780) also introduced the genre of ghazal into Kashmiri language, see, Shauq, Shafi and Munwar, Najji (2008). Kashir Zaban ti Adabuk Twarikh (in Kashmiri). Srinagar: Ali Muhammad & Sons. pp.125–127. ISBN 978-81-921925-7-4Hassan Khan ibn Muhammad TaqiMuhammad Yahya ibn Ahmad KhanSayyid Jafar NajafiKMuhammad AzamSayyid Mir Arab ShahKhawja Muhammad FazilMulla Abul Hakim SatehSateh also served as the companion of the Mughal emperor, Farukh Siyyar (r. 1713–1719), before returning to Kashmir after the emperor's execution.Sayyid Mir Muhammad AbbasKhawja Hassi Bhat NadanMulla Ahmad NishapuriSayyid Mir Sharf-al Din RizviKhawja Muhammad TabriziMulla Ibrahim MunjimMulla Ibrahim Munjim (or Mulla Abdul Rahim Munjim) served as the tutor of Nawwab Ibrahim Khan (d. 1709), who served as Mughal Governor of Kashmir in 1662–63, 1679–86, 1701–05 and 1709. See, Kashmiri, Mirza Muhammad Ali (2009). Barzegar, Dr. Karim Najafi (ed.). Tazkira-i Zafran Zar (in Persian). Tehran: Society for the Appreciation of Cultural Works and Dignitaries.Sayyid Amir-al Din ZakhirMMulla Muhammad MahdiSayyid Saleh RizviMir Ahmad Ali TusiMulla RehmanUMir Arab Shah RizviMusa Khan ibn Muhammad Taqi al-HaeriUstad Muhammad JaferMir Saif ibn Mulla Khalil Munjim
Emergence of
The beginning of the nineteenth century CE marked the revival of the Kashmiri language, though Persian continued as a court language till 1889 CE. During the late eighteenth century through the nineteenth century CE, a new form of writing in Kashmiri emerged, signifying a major evolutionary phase in this literary genre. Literary critics refer to this period as the age of classical writing or (). The that emerged during this period is structured around four fixed stations known as , which define the thematic content. Each , in turn, completes a stanza— ( )with a parallel internal structure.
Two writers from North Kashmir are credited with this innovation: Qazi Ahmad Ali (d. 1800 approx.) and Khwaja Hasan Mir (d. 1826 CE). Qazi Ahmad Ali, originally a Sunni from Varmul (Baramulla), converted to Shi’ism and formalized the s within the . He was a senior contemporary of Khwaja Husayn Mir, a cultivator residing in the village of Habak. Husayn Mir, popularly known as Hussi Boii (), significantly popularized the new form of among the urban elite of Srinagar. He also made innovations to the internal structure of the . Additionally, he introduced the poets of the Mulla family in Srinagar, who were accustomed to composing in Persian, to this new form of Kashmiri . Over the next two generations, the Mulla family produced successive writers.
The earliest composers of Kashmiri in the Mulla family include Mulla Hakim Muhammad Azim(1803-1852CE), Mulla Munshi Muhammad Yusuf(1798–1885 CE) and Mulla Munshi Shah Muhammad (d. 1850 approx.).Also see, Baqir, Sayyid Muhammad (late 19th century). Risala Saif al Saram (in Persian). Lahore. Hakim Azim and Munshi Yusuf played pivotal roles in enhancing the poetic beauty of , transcending the constraints of its elegiac form. In an epistle written to Khan Bahadur Sayyid Rajib Ali Khan (d. 1869), Azim highlights how he envisaged Marsiya as a symbol of Shia identity, and also his own role in reshaping the literary contours of this genre:Having sent that for such a long time at an adverse fate, I necessarily intended to bring out the shinning pearls of its sad contents, which I had spun together in new ways, and arrange it on the lines of a Kashmiri Marsiya.During the nineteenth century, alongside Srinagar, another notable centre for writing emerged in the village of Gund Khwaja Qasim, under the stewardship of Khwaja Muhammad Baqir Gundi (d.~1834CE). The tradition was greatly advanced by his son, Khawja Abdullah, and a student Mirza Aboul Qasim (d. ~ 1853CE). The works of Mirza Aboul Qasim would achieve great public acclaim, and he remains the most prolific and popular writer to date.
During the first half of the 19th century, many Kashmiri Marsiya writers left for Faizabad and Lucknow, seeking patronage at the court of the Shia rulers of Awadh. These include Munshi Qasim, Munshi Shah Muhammad, Khwaja Abdullah, Munshi Safdar and Mirza Aboul Qasim. Oral traditions preserved amongst the Kashmiri Shia community maintain that Munshi Safdar was a close confidante of the last king of Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah(r. 1847–1856), and was poisoned due to court intrigue.
Some of the main writers from this period are: +Kashmiri Writers ( 19th-mid 20th century)HMMHakim Ghulam RasulMulla Hakim Muhammad AzimAzim was intimately connected with the Sikh and Dogra court and used his official position to further the interests of Kashmir Shia Muslims. He was the only Muslim Chief Jagirdar who enjoyed the confidence of the first Dogra ruler, Maharaja Gulab Singh, serving as his Chief Physician as well as the custodian of the Sericulture industry (daroga-i kiram kashan), see, Zuthsi, Chitralekha (2003). Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity, and the Making of Kashmir. Delhi: Permanent Black. p.73. ISBN 81-7824-060-2 (1803–1852)Munshi Ahmad Ali Ghazi (1853–1923)KMulla Hakim Muhammad Jawad (1891–1946)Munshi Muhammad Safdar (~ d. 1850's)Khwaja Abdullah GundiMulla Munshi Haider (1872–1941)SKhwaja Husayn Mir (~d. 1820-30's)Mulla Munshi Hasan Ali (1866–1933)Sayyid Muhammad RizviKhwaja Muhammad Baqir GundiMulla Munshi Ihsan-al Lah (1838–1925)Sayyid Mustafa RizviKhwaja Muhammad DaimMulla Munshi Muhammad Abbas (1869–1944)MMulla Munshi Muhammad Ali (1829–1902)Mirza Aboul Qasim (~ d. 1853)Mulla Munshi Muhammad QasimQasim was also an acclaimed calligrapher, for details see, Hamdani, Hakim Sameer; Qureshi, Mehran (11 January 2024), "The Art of the Book in Early Modern Kashmir", The Routledge Companion to Global Renaissance Art, New York: Routledge, pp. 300–315, doi:10.4324/9781003294986-25, , retrieved 24 August 2024 (~d. 1840-50's)Moulvi Abdullah AnsariMulla Munshi Muhammad Sadiq (1897–1972)Mulla Hakim Abdullah (d. 1887)Mulla Munshi Muhammad Yusuf (1798–1885)Mulla Hakim Habib-al LahHabib also left a diwan of Persian poetry. Outside the genre of marsiya he is also known for his satirical poetry which brings to the fore various aspects of Kashmiri society in the 19th century, these include, Greias Nama and Sehlab Nama. See, Kazmi, Anees, and Manzar, MY (1981). Kuliyat-i Hakim Habib-al Lah (in Kashmiri). Srinagar: J&K Academy of Art, Culture & Languages. (1852–1904)Mulla Munshi Mustafa Ali (1814–1889)Mulla Hakim Hasan Ali (1870–1915)Mulla Munshi Shah Muhammad (~d. 1850's) In the post-Independence period, the tradition of writing was greatly reduced, with most poets engaging in composing in the easier, shorter genre of nauha. Some writers who have produced that are recited publicly include, Sayyid Aboul Hassan Zigum, Sayyid Anis Kazmi and Sayyid Muhammad Chatergami.
The main writers from this time are: +Kashmiri Writers (mid 20th century- onwards)ASZAga Sayyid Abbas MusaviSayyid Akbar HashmiZulfiqar QasmiAga Sayyid Aboul Hasan ZigumSayyid Anis KazmiGSayyid Asad-ul Lah SafviGhulam Husayn Khaksar Gulam Ahmad DilgeerSayyid Muhammad ChatergamiMSayyid Sami-ul Lah JalaliMoulvi Muhammad Yusuf
Structure