Filipino shamans, commonly known as the (also balian or , among many other names), were shamans of the various ethnic groups of the pre-colonial Philippines. These shamans specialized in communicating, appeasing, or harnessing the spirits of the dead and the spirits of nature. were predominantly women serving in spiritual leadership roles. Effeminate men ( or ) could also be shamans and adopted dress and roles commonly associated with women within indigenous spiritual practice, although they were usually less common than female shamans. Shamans were believed to have spirit guides through which they could contact and interact with the spirits and deities ( or ) and the spirit world. Their primary role was as mediums during séance rituals. There were also various subtypes of specializing in the arts of healing and herbalism, divination, and sorcery.
Terminology
The most common native terms for shamans among Austronesian groups in Island Southeast Asia are balian, baylan, or cognates and spelling variants thereof. They are all derived from Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian *balian, meaning "shaman" (probably originally female, transvestite, or hermaphroditic) or "medium". Various cognates in other non-Filipino Austronesian languages include , , and bobohizan (Kadazan-Dusun); (Ma'anyan); (Iban); (Malay); or (Old Javanese); (Balinese); (Mongondow); (Uma); or (Bare'e); (Wolio); (Ngaju); and (Makassar). However *balian-derived terms have largely disappeared among lowland Filipinos after Christianization in the Spanish era. Some exceptions exist, such as Bikol, where it persisted and acquired the Spanish feminine suffix -a to become . It also survives among some Muslim Filipinos, such as in Maranao, although the meaning has shifted after Islamization.
The linguist Otto Dempwolff has also theorized that *balian may have ultimately derived from Proto-Austronesian *bali ("escort", "accompany") with the suffix *-an, meaning "one who escorts a soul to the other world" (a psychopomp). However, the linguists Robert Blust and Stephen Trussel have noted that there is no evidence that *balian is a suffixed form, and thus believe that Dempwolff's interpretation is incorrect.
More general terms used by Spanish sources for native shamans throughout the archipelago were derived from Tagalog and Visayan ("spirit"), such as and . However, different ethnic groups had different names for shamans, including shamans with specialized roles. These include:
Abaknon: Aeta/Agta: anitu, puyang (also poyang, pawang, pauang), huhak (diviner) Bagobo: Balanguingui: duwarta Banwaon: babaiyon (also the female datu of the tribe) Bikol: , , , , Bukidnon: Gaddang: Hanunó'o: , Higaonon: Hiligaynon: Ibaloi: Ifugao: , , , , , , , (apprentice) Ilocano: , , , (medium), (herbalist) Isneg: , , Itneg: , Ivatan: (medium), (midwife), (diviner) Kankana-ey: (medium), (healer), (diviner, also ) Kapampangan: (also ) Karay-a: , (healer), (diviner, also ) Lumad: balian, balyan, mabalian Maguindanao: (female shaman, midwife), (medium), (medium), (healer), ([apprentice] healer, also ), (diviner) Mamanwa: , , , (healer, also ) Mandaya: , , Manobo: , (also ), (mediator, keeper of traditions, also ), (healer against sorcery), or , (head shaman) Maranao: , Palaw'an: Sama-Bajau: balyan, wali jinn, dukun, papagan, pawang, bomoh, kalamat (diviner), panday (healer, midwife) Sarangani: Subanen: balian, tanguiling Suludnon: banawangon Tagalog: (also , , ), , , (or ), (herbalist), (healer), or (diviner), (midwife) Talaandig: Tausug: (also , ), (diviner) Tagbanwa: , T'boli: , (healer), (healer) Visayan: (also , ), (also , , , ), (also , ), (also ), , , (or ), (or ), (healer), (healer), (herbalist), or (diviner), (midwife) Yakan:
According to Jaime Veneracion, incorporates the root *talon which, in ancient Tagalog, meant "forest" (cf. Hiligaynon, Masbatenyo, Inabaknon, Capisano, Palawano, Buhid, and Agutaynen talon, "forest" or "thicket"). Other scholars believe that the origin of the word is the root word "*talo" which, according to them, is a Tagalog word originally meaning "to converse"; thus the word literally means someone who converse or communicate with the spirits (). According to Blumentritt, an old Tagalog word "" is a term describing the while possessed by the spirits (). In some Malayo-Polynesian languages, such as Tahitian, "" means "to pray" , while in Rapanui it means "a malediction or curse" . In Samoan, "" or "" means "a prayer" or "to pray". Linguist Malcolm Mintz, however, offers a different etymology. He suggests that the Tagalog root word is "*tulong" which means "to help". Some writers, such as William Henry Scott and Luciano P. R. Santiago ,favoured Mintz's suggestion and used the term (which is actually a Pampangan term) to refer to the priests and priestesses of the Tagalogs, instead of or .
Initiation
Most inherit their status from an older they are apprenticed to, usually a relative. In some cultures, such as the Isneg people, older shamans can choose apprentices from among the eligible young women of the village.
A few, however, become after experiencing what has been termed a "shamanistic initiatory crisis" (also "shamanic illness" or "shamanic madness"). This includes serious or chronic illnesses, near-death experiences, sudden seizures and trembling, depression, strange events or behavior (including climbing balete trees or disappearing for several days with no memory of the events), bouts of insanity (including those induced by psychological trauma from a past event), and strange visions or dreams. These are regarded as encounters with the spirits, where the soul of the person is said to be journeying to the spirit world. In cases like this, it is said that a spirit chooses the person, rather than the other way around.
After being chosen, shamans go through an initiation rite. These rites are meant to gain or transfer the patronage of a spirit. Among Visayans, this ritual is known as the or . In cases of people with "shamanic illness", these initiation rites are regarded as the cure, where the initiate regains health or sanity by conceding to the wishes of the spirits and "answering the call". When volunteered rather than volunteering, their relatives are usually required to pay a large fee to the senior shaman for the training. Initiation rites can range from simply inducing a trance through herbs or alcohol, to inducing personal crises through physical or psychological hardship. Extreme examples of initiation rites include getting buried alive or being immersed in water overnight.
After initiation, the apprentices are then trained in the details of their role. This training includes learning about rituals, chants and songs, the sacrifices appropriate for each spirit, oral histories, herbs, healing practices, and magic spells, among other things. They usually assist the senior shaman during ceremonies until their training is complete, which can take months to years. Each shaman can have one or more such apprentices, at varying ranks or specializations.
Spirit guides
The shaman's power to communicate with the spirit world is derived from their spirit companions that guide them and intercede for them. These spirits are usually referred to in euphemistic terms like (friend), or (guardian), or (guide), among other terms. Shamans have at least one , with more powerful shamans having many. Certain individuals, like powerful leaders or warriors (especially those with shaman relatives), are also believed to have their own that give them magical powers. are also believed to guide, teach, and inspire skilled artists and craftsmen in the community.
spirits can be ancestor spirits, but they are more commonly non-human spirits. Shamans either have spirit companions from birth, draw their attention during the "shamanic illness", or gain their allegiance during initiation into shamanism. Spirits are believed to be social beings, with individual quirks and personalities (both good and bad). The friendship of depend on reciprocity. The shamans do not command them. People with must regularly offer sacrifices to these spirits, usually consisting of food, alcoholic drinks, ngangà, and blood from a sacrificial animal (usually a chicken or a pig)These sacrifices vary depending on the type of spirit being interacted with (Buenconsejo, 2002) in order to maintain good relations. This friendship of , once earned, is enduring. They become, in essence, part of the family. The of a deceased shaman will often "return" to a living relative who might choose to become a shaman as well.
The are essential in shamanistic rituals, as they prevent the shaman's soul from getting lost in the spirit world. They also communicate entreaties on behalf of the shaman to more powerful spirits or deities, and fight evil spirits during healing or exorcism rituals.
Sex and gender
In most Philippine ethnic groups, shamans were predominantly female, due to the role of the shaman (especially the medium) being an intrinsically feminine one. Among the minority of male shamans, most belonged to a distinct class—known as in the Visayas and or in Luzon—who adopted the voice, mannerisms, hairstyle, and dress typically associated with women.Asog is from Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian *asug, "shaman in ritual transvestite attire"; and Proto-Central Philippine *ásug, "sterile" or "asexual". Asog is the term used for transvestite male shamans in most of the Visayas and in the Bicol Region. Other Visayan terms include bantot, bayog, binabaye, and babayenon. In the rest of Luzon, they are known as (), , ( or ), , or . Notably among the Sambal, the highest-ranking shaman was a . They are also known as among the Subanen, though they were not necessarily shamans (Garcia, 2008; Kroeber, 1918). These individuals were treated socially in ways similar to women, and their status allowed them access to spiritual and religious professions.
In Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas (1668), the Spanish historian and missionary Francisco Ignacio Alcina records that the became shamans by virtue of being themselves. Unlike female shamans, they did not need to be chosen or undergo initiation rites. However, not all trained to become shamans. Castano states that the people of Bicol would hold a thanksgiving ritual called that was "presided" by an "effeminate" priest called an . His female counterpart, called a , assisted him and led the women in singing what was called the soraki, in honor of Gugurang.Castano, José. 1895. "Breve Noticia Acerca del Origen, Religión, Creencias y Supersticiones de los Antiguos Indios del Bícol." Madrid: Colegio de Misioneros de Almagro.