Bahrain and its Dependencies covers the history of Bahrain from the Bani Utbah invasion—led by Al Khalifa—in 1783 until the nation's independence from the British Empire in 1971. The term "Dependencies" historically referred to the shifting territorial governance of the ruling family over the Bahraini archipelago and portions of the Qatar peninsula.
Prior to the invasion, Bahrain was a dependency of Zand Iran under the governance of Nasr Al-Madhkur. Once Ahmed bin Muhammad Al Khalifa established his family's rule, the new dynasty spent nearly a century constantly fighting to defend it. The islands were briefly under the occupation of the Sultanate of Muscat and the Emirate of Diriyah following back-to-back invasions, while both the Ottomans and Qajars kept trying to claim the territory as their own. To secure their position, the Al Khalifa signed major maritime agreements with the British Empire, notably the General Maritime Treaty of 1820 and the Perpetual Truce of 1861, which recognized the dynasty as the legitimate rulers of Bahrain.
In 1867, a war erupted between Bahrain and Qatar, leading to British intervention and independence of Qatar from Bahrain. The British appointed a new Al Khalifa ruler, Isa bin Ali. During Isa's reign (1869–1923), there were no external challenges to the country as Britain defended it. He and his family enjoyed absolute powers, ruling over people as subjects and controlling much of the country as feudal estates. The public revenue of the country, collected then mostly as taxes and rents was the ruler's private income. The ruler used a special militant group to execute his orders via physical coercion. The backbone of the economy was palm cultivation, fishing and pearl diving. Palm cultivation, which the Shia practiced, was tightly controlled by Al Khalifa. Control over pearl diving on the other hands was relaxed, as it was controlled by the Sunni tribes who kept a high level of autonomy and resisted intervention. The Shia power came from their jurists who had strong social power combined with large assets.
In the end of the nineteenth century, Britain placed Bahrain under its protection and by the end of the First World War tightened its grip on the island. Starting from 1919, successive British political agents began implementing reform plans. The reforms of the twenties as they became known were administrative in nature. The Shia supported them, while the Sunni tribes and parts of the ruling family opposed them. Many petitions and counter petitions were submitted to various British officials. The country was divided and violence erupted from the opposing faction. The British intervened and replaced the ruler with his elder son, Hamad bin Isa, who supported the reforms. The reforms included the pearl industry, private properties, judicial system, policing system and education. In 1932, oil was discovered, leading to significant economical and social changes in the island. Pearl industry and palm cultivation were soon wiped out due to oil growing industry.
Rise of Al Khalifa
Al Khalifa, a Sunni family allied under the Bani Utbah tribe, settled in Al Zubarah (Qatar) in 1766 after moving to it from Kuwait. Originally, their ancestors were expelled from Umm Qasr in Iraq by the Ottomans due to their predatory habits of preying on caravans in Basra and trading ships in the Shatt al-Arab waterway. The Turks exiled them to Kuwait in 1716 where they remained until 1766.
Around the 1760s, Al Khalifa migrated to Zubarah in modern-day Qatar.'Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' (1155/1782), p. 1001 The Al Jalahma family, allied under the Bani Utbah tribe, soon joined Al Khalifa in Zubarah, leaving Al Sabah as the sole proprietors of Kuwait.
However, they disagreed later on the distribution of revenues, leading Al Jalahma to move to Ar Ru'ays, just east of Zubarah. Al Khalifa attacked them there and killed their chief Jaber Al Jalahma.
Rule of Al Khalifa (1783–1869)
Ahmed's reign (1783–96) was stable and peaceful during which pearl production and trade grew significantly. However, during the next 75 years, Al Khalifa rule in Bahrain faced serious external and internal threats. Nonetheless, by allying with their enemies against each other, they managed to keep the island under their control.
External challenges
In 1796, Wahhabis occupied Al Zubara following their capture of Al-Hasa the year earlier. The defeated Salman bin Ahmed who succeeded his father moved to Jaww in the eastern coast of Bahrain, later moving to Riffa where he built an impressive fort. In 1799, ruler of Muscat, Oman launched an attack on Bahrain, but failed to control it. The next year he launched another attack, this time successful and appointed his son to supervise the island. In 1801, Al Khalifa, who fled to Al Zubara retook control over Bahrain, taking advantage of Omani fleet absence. The Omanis retaliated the next year, only to get defeated. Wahhabis, who supported Al Khalifa against Oman, placed Bahrain under their protection between 1803 and 1809 and direct control in 1810.
As soon as the Wahhabis were weakened by the Egyptian advance in 1811, Al Khalifa announced their alliance with Oman and paid tribute to it for two years. Then, when Oman was weakened after their defeat by Al Qawasim, Al Khalifa announced their autonomy. Al Jalahma's leader Rahmah bin Jabir, based in Khor Hassan opposed Al Khalifa who he held a deep grudge against. He pirated their ships and supported their enemies until he was killed in 1826 in a dramatic battle. In 1820, representatives of the British Empire - then the dominant power in the region - signed a "General Treaty of Peace" with tribal chiefs including Al Khalifa. By signing this treaty, the British recognized Al Khalifa as the "legitimate" rulers of Bahrain, but they also gave Persia a claim over Bahrain, which it kept invoking until Bahrain's independence in 1971.
During that period it was Oman, not Persia, that was the main external threat to Bahrain: between 1816 and 1828 they launched four military campaigns to Bahrain, all failed with the last costing them devastating losses. During the reign of Muhammad bin Khalifa (1843–68), threats to Bahrain came from the Wahhabis, Ottomans and Persians. Muhammad tried to appease both the Ottomans and Persians by pretending to support both of them simultaneously. For the Wahhabis, he used military action, which Britain opposed and offered in secret to defend Bahrain. When Muhammad refused to stop his campaign, Britain directly intervened, besieging his war fleet and forcing him to call off the attack.
In 1847, Faisal bin Turki, Imam of Najd, attempted to intervene in Bahrain, exploiting internal conflicts within the ruling family. Although unsuccessful in capturing Bahrain, he settled for a peace agreement that included a tribute payment. Faisal's inability to seize Bahrain was, in part, due to the firm stance of the British government against Saudi expansion in the Persian Gulf. The British, who had substantial interests in the region, closely monitored Faisal's movements. Their support for Muhammad bin Khalifa and their strategic positions in the Gulf influenced the broader regional dynamics.
However, in 1850, Muhammad began not to pay the tribute, and next year he attempted to get support from the Ottomans, but his attempt was not fruitful. In May 1851, Faisal launched his third attempt to capture Bahrain, ordering his forces to proceed towards Al Bidda, Qatar, which was intended to be used as a staging area for an invasion of Bahrain, preparing for a confrontation with Muhammad bin Khalifa. In response, Ali bin Khalifa, the Bahraini representative in Qatar, called on all men of fighting age to defend Al Bidda, as well as sending for help from Saeed bin Tahnun Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi. This culminated in the Battle of Mesaimeer, taking place from 2–4 June, 1851. Although the resistance was initially successful in repelling the invasion, Ali bin Khalifa's forces later retreated to their ships. Shortly after the fighting had taken place, Mohammed bin Thani, an influential tribal leader in Al Bidda, pursued a separate peace agreement with Faisal and agreed to his governance, a move seen as a betrayal by the Bahrainis. Upon receiving news of this, Muhammad bin Khalifa ordered a naval blockade of Al Bidda in June 1851. He also sent Hamad bin Mohammed Al Khalifa to inform British political resident Samuel Hennell of his concerns of a joint Wahhabi-Qatari invasion of Bahrain and requested protection, stating that he was willing to be a British subject in exchange for such protection. The British originally rejected this proposition.
Upon further analysis of the situation, Justin Sheil, a high-ranking British diplomat in Persia, concluded that Faisal bin Turki's control of the Qatari Peninsula would be detrimental to British interests as it would provide the Ottoman Empire with an opportunity to incorporate Bahrain under its aegis in the event of a joint Qatari-Wahhabi invasion of the island. Thus, on 1 July, Hennel directed multiple British warships to be sent to protect Manama Harbor in Bahrain. He then separately wrote letters to Faisal bin Turki and Mohammed bin Thani, warning them against launching a naval invasion of the Bahraini coast. The conflict pacified when, facing pressure from multiple sides and fearing further erosion of Bahraini influence, Muhammad bin Khalifa agreed to a peace settlement. This agreement, brokered by Saeed bin Tahnun of Abu Dhabi on July 25, 1851, required Bahrain to pay an annual sum of 4,000 German krones to Faisal bin Turki as zakat. In return, Faisal agreed to restore the fort of Al Bidda to Bahraini control and to cease interference in Qatar.
The British blockade ended with the signing of the Perpetual Truce of Peace and Friendship in 1861, by which the ruler of Bahrain was not to engage in "prosecution of war, piracy and slavery at sea" and Britain was to provide protection. Britain then eliminated all external threats against Bahrain; they bombarded Wahhabis in Dammam, and used diplomacy to neutralize Persian and Ottoman ambitions.
Internal challenges
Al Khalifa held Bahrain as feudal estates and an occupied territory; they imposed taxes on local population to collect as much revenue as possible, with special focus on the Shia population. Al Khalifa initiated a series of land and property confiscation, and destruction of local sources of strength that lasted to the early 1930s. The Shia, who claim to be the indigenous population of Bahrain speak of an ideal past before invasion of Al Khalifa in which an assembly of Shia jurists would elect a smaller assembly which would in turn elect a council of three. Khuri (1980) mentions that it is very hard to either support or reject their assertion regarding the council of jurists, because documentation is lacking, but argues that it could be a "mythical reaction to their physical and social agonies during and after the conquest [of Al Khalifa]".
Once external threats were reduced in 1828 following Oman's heavy loss, the Al Khalifa became engaged in a series of internal conflicts among themselves. These conflicts caused more damage to Bahrain economy and society than that of external invasions, the Shia suffered most of which. Soon after Al Khalifa arrived to Bahrain, they became divided into two factions, one led by Salman bin Ahmed based in Bahrain mainland and the other led by his brother Abdulla based in Muharraq Island. Gradually, Muharraq became almost independent, having its own tribal administration. Khalifa bin Salman succeeded his father in 1826. Khalifa's death in 1834 escalated the internal conflict as his uncle, Abdulla became the sole ruler of Bahrain.