The Kainantu–Goroka languages are a family of Papuan languages established by Arthur Capell in 1948 under the name East Highlands. They formed the core of Stephen Wurm's 1960 East New Guinea Highlands family (the precursor of Trans–New Guinea), and are one of the larger branches of Trans–New Guinea in the 2005 classification of Malcolm Ross.
Languages The constituent Kainantu and Goroka families are clearly valid groups, and both William A. Foley and Timothy Usher consider their TNG identity to be established. The languages are:NewGuineaWorld
Goroka family Daulo Siane, Yaweyuha Gahuku: Alekano (Gahuku), Asaro River: Dano (Upper Asaro), Tokano (Lower Asaro) Benabena South Goroka: Fore, Gimi Isabi, Gende Henganofi Abaga Kamono (Kamano) Fayatina River Kanite, Inoke-Yate Yagaria (?Ke’yagana) [subsumed under another language by Usher] Kainantu family Kenati Tairoric (East Kainantu): Binumarien (Afaqina), Tairoa (North Tairora, Omwunra, Vinaata), Waffa Gauwa (West Kainantu) Gadsup (Oyana, Akuna, Ontenu), Agarabi, Kambaira Awa, Oweina Auyana: Awiyaana (incl. Kosena), Usarufa
Pronouns The pronouns reconstructed by Ross (2005) for proto-Kainantu–Goroka, proto-Kainantu, and proto-Goroka are as follows:
+ sgpl1*ná*tá[za]2*ká[za]*tá-na-3*[y]á, *wá*yá[na]
|+proto-Kainantu ! !!sg!!du!!pl |- !1 |*né||*té[ze]-||*té[ze] |- !2 |*é[ze]||*[te]né-|| |- !3 |*wé|| ||
|+proto-Goroka ! !!sg!!pl |- !1 |*ná||*tá[za] |- !2 |*ká||*tá-na-gaza, *tí-na-gaza |- !3 |*[y]á||*[y]á-na-gaza, *í-na-gaza
The possessive forms are:
|+proto-Kainantu–Goroka ! !!sg!!pl |- !1 |*na-i||*ta-i |- !2 |*ka||*tana-i |- !3 |*[y]a, *wa||*ya-i, *yana-i
Modern reflexes Kainantu–Goroka reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma are:
Awa language: are 'ear' < *kand(e,i)k(V] nu 'louse' < *niman
Tairora language: ato 'ear' < *kand(e,i)k(V] ir 'tree' < *inda (n)am 'breast' < *amu nume 'louse' < *niman kubu 'short' < *k(a,u)tu(p,mb)aC mi- 'give' < *mV-
Fore language: na- 'eat' < *na- numaa 'louse' < *niman mi- 'give' < *mV- amune 'egg' < *mun(a,i,u)ka kasa 'new' < *kVndak mone 'nose' < *mundu
Gende language: ami 'breast' < *amu mut 'belly' < *mundun 'internal organs' mina- 'stay' < *mVna- nogoi 'water < *[n]ok (tu)nima 'louse' < *niman me- 'give' < *mV-
Innovations in proto-Kainantu-Goroka replacing proto-Trans-New Guinea forms: *tá[za] '1pl' replaces pTNG *ni, *nu *tá-na '2pl' replaces pTNG *ŋgi, *ja genitive forms ending in *-i
Vocabulary comparison Gorokan basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986).Foley, William A. (1986). The Papuan Languages of New Guinea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
Despite the presence of reconstructions in the left column, the words cited constitute translation equivalents, whether they are cognate (e.g. ya, yafa, yava for “tree”) or not (e.g. tuva, logo, hali for “fire”).
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Proto-Gorokan !! Gende !! Siane !! Benabena !! Kamono–Yagaria !! Fore |- | 'two' || *tote || ogondrari || lele || loe || lole || tara |- | 'man' || *we || vei || we || vo || ve || wa |- | 'water' || *no(k) || nogoi || no || nagami || ni(na) || wani |- | 'fire' || || tuva || yo || logo || hali || yakuʔ |- | 'tree' || *ya || izo || ya || yafa || yava || yaː |- | 'leaf' || || kuruma || aila || haya(ʔa) || haeya || aʔyeʔ |- | 'root' || *supa || tovaya || lufawa || lufusa(ʔa) || havu || aubu |- | 'house' || *nom || nomu || numu(na) || no(hi) || yo(na) || naːmaʔ |- | 'breast' || *ami || ami- || ami(na) || amiha(ʔa) || ami(maʔa) || nono |- | 'tooth' || *wa || va(iza) || auma || yogo(ʔa) || (ä)vep || (a)wa |- | 'bone' || *yampu || yami- || auma || felisa(ʔa) || (a)pu(va) || (a)yaːmpu |- | 'ear' || *ke/a || ka- || ka(la) || (e)kesa(ʔa) || (ä)geta || (a)ge |- | 'hair' || *yoka || yogo || yowa(la) || oka(ʔa) || (a)yokaʔ || (a)yaːʔ |- | 'leg' || *kia || kia- || kiya(na) || gigusa(ʔa) || (a)gia || (a)gisaː |- | 'blood' || *kota || mamia- || wanu || golaha(ʔa) || gola(na) || koraːʔ |- | 'hand' || *ya || ya || a(na) || yaha(ʔa) || (ä)ya || ya |- | 'egg' || *mut || mura || mula || mu(ʔa) || mu(na) || amuʔ |- | 'sun' || *po || po || fo || yafi || yafo || yaːbu |- | 'axe' || *tu || tu || luna || lu || lu || tuʔ |- | 'netbag' || *ko || ko || owo || gu(ʔi) || gu(na) || koʔ |- | 'eat' || *na- || na- || n- || na- || no- || na- |- | 'die' || *puti- || pri- || fol- || fili- || fili- || puri- |- | 'say' || *si- || ti- || l- || li- || hi- || i- |- | 'give' || *mi- || imi- || om- || m- || mi- || mi- |- | 'big' || *(n)ampa || namba || namba || napa || legepa || tabe
Kainantu basic vocabulary from William A. Foley (1986):
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Awa !! Auyana !! Gadsup !! Tairora |- | 'two' || tɔtare || kaiʔa || kaantani || taaraʔanta |- | 'man' || wɛ || waiya || banta || bainti |- | 'water' || no || nomba || nomi || namari |- | 'fire' || ira || irama || ikai || iha |- | 'tree' || ta || taima || yaani || katari |- | 'leaf' || ɔnɔ || anama || anai || mare |- | 'root' || anuʔ || anuʔa || anuʔi || tuʔa |- | 'house' || nɔ || naamba || maʔi || naabu |- | 'breast' || nɔ || naamba || naami || naama |- | 'tooth' || awɛ || awaiyamba || abakuni || aabai |- | 'bone' || ayɔnta || ayaantamba || ayampai || buhaarima |- | 'ear' || ɔre || aʔa || aakami || aato |- | 'hair' || (a)yɔra || aayara || -nyoi || kauhi |- | 'leg' || ai || aisamima || akani || aiʔu |- | 'blood' || nɛe || naema || naarei || naare |- | 'hand' || ayɔnobeh || ayamba || aayaami || kauʔu |- | 'egg' || au || auma || amuʔi || auru |- | 'sun' || popoʔnah || aabauma || ikona || kauri |- | 'axe' || konaro || koraroba || kuntaʔi || kaarima |- | 'netbag' || unɔ || unaamba || unaami || uta |- | 'eat' || nɔno || nare || naano || naana |- | 'die' || pukire || pukai || pukono || ʔutubiro |- | 'say' || iraruwo || siyo || seʔu || tiena |- | 'give' || awiʔ || ami || ameno || amina |- | 'big' || aanotɔ || anomba || inoʔna || nora
Proto-languages Some lexical reconstructions of Proto-East Kainantu and Proto-North Kainantu by Usher (2020) are:Usher, Timothy. 2020. East Kainantu. New Guinea World. Accessed 20210-01-19.Usher, Timothy. 2020. North Kainantu. New Guinea World. Accessed 20210-01-19.
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Proto-East Kainantu !! Proto-North Kainantu |- | head || *piᵄtɐ || *noːN |- | hair/feather || *jɐᵘsi || *jɐᵘ |- | ear || *ɑːtoː || *ɑːʔ |- | eye || *wu || *u |- | nose || *ipi || *siʔ |- | tooth || *wɐⁱ || *wɐj |- | tongue || *m₂ɑːpiɾi || *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ |- | leg || *ipu || *tɐɾ |- | blood || *wi[ʔt]ipɐ || *nɑːɾeː |- | bone || *muʔjɑːni || *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ |- | breast || *nɑːNmɐ || *nɑːN |- | louse || *numɐ || *nuN |- | dog || *w₂ɐⁱni || *ijɐN |- | pig || *p₂uᵄɾɐ || *poːɾ |- | bird || *inɑːmɐ; *uwini || *nuN |- | egg || *uɾu || *uɾ |- | tree || *jɐtɐɾi || *jɑːj |- | sun || *j₂uᵄni || *ɑːʔ |- | moon || *[u]toːnɐ || *wi[ɾ]oːN |- | water || *noːni || *noːN |- | fire || *iʔjɐ || *itɐ |- | stone || *oːni || *oː[ɾ/j] |- | path || *ɑːni || *ɑːj |- | man || *wɐⁱ-iNti || *wɑːⁱNsɐ |- | woman || *ɐnɑːjeː || *ɐnɑːsi |- | name || *utu || *wiʔ |- | eat || *nɐ- || |- | one || *moːʔjɑː || *mɐnɑː |- | two || *tɑːɾɐ || *tɑːN
See also East New Guinea Highlands languages, an expansion of Kainantu–Goroka in Wurm 1975, which was later abandoned by Ross due to a lack of unifying morphological data.
Bibliography
Ross, Malcolm. 2014. Proto-Kainantu-Goroka. TransNewGuinea.org. Ross, Malcolm. 2014. Proto-Goroka. TransNewGuinea.org. Ross, Malcolm. 2014. Proto-Kainantu. TransNewGuinea.org. Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka. TransNewGuinea.org. From Scott, G. 1978. The Fore language of Papua New Guinea. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Proto-Eastern-Central Gorokan. TransNewGuinea.org. From Scott, G. 1978. The Fore language of Papua New Guinea. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
References
External links Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Kainantu