The Greater Awyu or Digul River languages, known in earlier classifications with more limited scope as Awyu–Dumut (Awyu–Ndumut), are a family of perhaps a dozen Trans–New Guinea languages primarily spoken in South Papua Province, near the Digul River. Six of the languages are sufficiently attested for a basic description; it is not clear how many of the additional names (in parentheses below) may be separate languages.
History The Awyu (pronounced like English Ow you) and Awyu–Dumut families were identified by Peter Drabbe in the 1950s.
Voorhoeve included them in his proposed Central and South New Guinea group.Voorhoeve, C.L. 1968. “The Central and South New Guinea Phylum: a report on the language situation in south New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics, Series A, No. 16: 1-17. Canberra: Australian National University. As part of Central and South New Guinea, they form part of the original proposal for Trans–New Guinea.McElhanon, Kenneth A.and C.L. Voorhoeve. 1970. The Trans-New Guinea phylum: explorations in deep-level genetic relationships. Pacific Linguistics, Series B, No. 16. Canberra: Australian National University.
Classification The classification below is based on UsherNew Guinea World - Digul River and de Vries et al. (2012),Lourens de Vries, Ruth Wester, & Wilco van den Heuvel. 2012. "The Greater Awyu language family of West Papua", pp. 269–312 of Hammarström & van den Heuvel (eds.), History, Contact and Classification of Papuan Languages. (Language and Linguistics in Melanesia Special Issue). Port Moresby: Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea. who used morphological innovations to determine relatedness, which can be obscured by lexical loanwords.
Sawi (Sawuy) Awyu–Dumut (Central Digul River) Awyu languages: Aghu (Jair), Shiaxa (Jenimu, Edera), Pisa (Asuwe) Ndeiram–Ndumut Dumut (Wambon) branch: Mandobo (Kaeti, Dumut), Wambon Ndeiram River: Kombai–Wanggom North Digul River Awbono-Bayono Becking–Dawi Dawi River: Komyandaret, Tsaukambo Becking River: Korowai
Sawi is classified on pronominal data, as the morphological data used for the rest of the family is not available.
Pawley and Hammarström (2018) exclude Awbono-Bayono, treating it as a separate family.
Various other languages can be found in the literature. Airo-Sumaxage (Airo-Sumaghage)Multitree is listed in Wurm, Foley, etc., but not in the University of Amsterdam survey and has been dropped by Ethnologue. Ethnologue lists a 'Central Awyu', but this is not attested as a distinct language (U. Amsterdam). In general, the names in Ethnologue are quite confused, and older editions speak of names from Wurm (1982), such as Mapi, Kia, Upper Digul, Upper Kaeme, which are names of language surveys along the rivers of those names, and may actually refer to Ok languages rather than to Awyu.
van den Heuvel & Fedden (2014) argue that Greater Awyu and Greater Ok are not genetically related, but that their similarities are due to intensive contact.van den Heuvel, W. & Fedden, S. (2014). Greater Awyu and Greater Ok: Inheritance or Contact? Oceanic Linguistics 53(1), 1-36. University of Hawai'i Press.
Reconstruction
Phonemes Usher (2020) reconstructs "perhaps" 15 consonants and 8 vowels, as follows:New Guinea World
BilabialAlveolarPalatalVelarplainlabializedNasal**Plosiveplain****prenasalized*****Fricative*Semivowel**Rhotic*
! !Front !Central !Back |- align="center" !Close
|- align="center" !Close-mid
|- align="center" !Open-mid
|- align="center" !Open
Pronouns Usher (2020) reconstructs the pronouns as:
! !!sg!!pl |- !1 |*nup|| |- !2 |*ngup||*ngip |- !3
Ross (2005) reconstructs the pronouns of the Awyu–Dumut branch as follows:
! !!sg!!pl |- !1 |*nu-p||*na-gu-p |- !2 |*gu-p||*ga-gu-p |- !3 |*e-p, *[n]ege-p, *yu-p||*ya-gu-p
The suffix *-p and the change of the final TNG *a vowel to *u do not appear in the possessive pronouns: *na, *ga, *ya/wa, *na-ga, *ga-ga, *ya-ga.
Basic vocabulary Healey (1970) and Voorhoeve (2000) The following selected reconstructions of Proto-Awyu-Dumut, Proto-Awyu, and Proto-Dumut by Voorhoeve are from Healey (1970)Healey, A. 1970. Proto-Awyu-Dumut Phonology. In Wurm, S.A. and Laycock, D. C. (eds). Pacific Linguistic Studies in honour of Arthur Capell. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. and Voorhoeve (2000),Voorhoeve, C. L. 2000. Proto Awyu-Dumut phonology II. In A. Pawley, M. Ross, & D. Tryon (Eds.), The Boy from Bundaberg: studies in Melanesian linguistics in honour of Tom Dutton (pp. 361–381). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database:
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Proto-Awyu-Dumut !! Proto-Awyu !! Proto-Dumut |- ! head | *kɑibɑn; *xaiban || *xaiban; *xɑibɑn || *kɑbiɑn; *kebian |- ! hair | *möxö; *muk; *ron || *mox; *mux; *ron || *mökö-ron; *muk; *ron |- ! ear | *turun || *turun || *turutop; *turu=top |- ! eye | *kerop || *kero || *kerop |- ! nose | *togut || || *togut |- ! tongue | *fɔgat; *fɔgɛt; *pogɑt || *fagɛ; *fɑge || *ogat; *pɑgɑt |- ! louse | *gut || *go; *gu; *ɑgu || *gut |- ! dog | *angay; *ɑgɑi; *set || *sɛ; *(y)ange; *(y)angi; *yɑgi || *agay; *ɑgɑi; *tit |- ! pig | *wi || *wi || *uy |- ! bird | *yet || *yi || *yet |- ! egg | *wɑidin || *mugo || *wɑdin |- ! blood | *gom || *gon || *gom |- ! bone | || *bogi || *mit |- ! skin | *kɑt; *xa(t) || *xɑ; *xa || *kotay; *kɑtɑy |- ! breast | *ɑm; *om || *om; **om || *om; *ɔm |- ! tree | *yin || *yin || *in |- ! woman | *ran; *rɑn || *ran; *rɑn || *ran; *rɑn |- ! sky | **xuit || *xuito || *kut |- ! sun | *seyɑt || || *sɑt |- ! moon | *wɑkot || || *wɑkot |- ! water | *ox || *ɔx; *óxo || *ok |- ! fire | *yin || *yin || |- ! stone | *irop || *ero; *iro || *irop |- ! name | *füp; *pip || *fi || *fip; *üp |- ! eat | *ɑde; *en; *ɛn- || *ɑde-; *en; *ɛn- || *ɑde; *en; *en- |- ! two | *rumo; *rumon || *okorumon; **ok=rumɔ(n) || *irumon; *rumo
Usher (2020) Some lexical reconstructions of Proto-Digul River and lower-level reconstructions by Usher (2020) are:
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Proto-Digul River !! Sawuy !! Proto-North Digul !! Proto-Central Digul |- ! head | *kamb[e̝]jan || || *kabe̝jan || *kambijan |- ! leaf/hair | *mo̝k || moːx || *mo̝k || *mo̝k |- ! tongue | *te̝p || seːp ~ seɸ || *te̝p || |- ! skin/bark | || || *kat || *kat |- ! breast | || aːm || *am || *ɒm |- ! dog | *tit || siːr || *tit || *tit |- ! bird | *ndzeːt || eːr || *dze̝t || *je̝t |- ! egg | *mug[o/ɔ] || mugo || || *mugɔ |- ! sun/day | *[a]tap || ataːp || || |- ! moon | *wakɔɾ || oxaːr || *wakɔɾ || *wakɔɾ |- ! water | || aːx || *[a/ɔ]k || *ɔk
Evolution
Greater Awyu reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma are:
Wambon language: maŋgot ‘teeth, mouth’ < *maŋgat[a] (Wambon S.) kodok ‘leg’ < *k(a,o)ndok[V] mok ‘seed’ < *maŋgV kotay ‘bark, skin’ < *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu kondok ‘bone’ < *kwanjaC kim- ‘die’ < *kumV- kinum- ‘sleep’ < *kin(i,u)- ok ‘water, river’ < *okV enop ‘fire’ < *kendop (ko)sep ‘ashes’ < *(kambu-)sumbu (Wambon N.) kumut ‘thunder’ < *kumut or *tumuk ururuk ko- ‘to fly’ < *pululu
Mandobo Atas language: am ‘breast’ < *amu magot ‘mouth’ < *maŋgat[a] koman ‘neck’ < *k(o,u)ma(n,ŋ)[V] (a)moka ‘cheek’ < *mVkVm ‘cheek, jaw’ kere(top) ‘ear’ < *kand(e,i)k(V] betit ‘fingernail’ < *mb(i,u)t(i,u)C kodok ‘foot, leg’ < *k(a,o)ndok[V] otae ‘bark, skin’ < *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu kiow ‘wind’ < *kumbutu komöt ‘thunder’ < *kumut üp ‘name’ < *imbi kinum- ‘sleep’ < *kin(i,u)- (ko)tep ‘ashes’ < *(kambu-)sumbu ok ‘water, river’ < *okV apap ‘butterfly’ < *apa(pa)ta
Pisa language: mugo ‘egg’ < *maŋgV, kiri mogo ‘eye’ < *kiti-maŋgV kifi ‘wind’ < *kumbutu ise ‘mosquito’ < *kasin apero ‘butterfly’ < *apa(pa)ta kunu (ri-) ‘sleep’ < *kin(i,u)- kekuŋ- ‘carry on the shoulder’ < *kak(i,u)-
Syiaxa language: fi ‘name’ < *imbi apa ‘butterfly’ < *apa([pa]pata boro ‘to fly’ < *pululu
References
Further reading Proto-Awyu-Dumut. TransNewGuinea.org. From (1) Voorhoeve, C. L. 2000. Proto Awyu-Dumut phonology II. In A. Pawley, M. Ross, & D. Tryon (Eds.), The Boy from Bundaberg: studies in Melanesian linguistics in honour of Tom Dutton (pp. 361–381). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics; (2) Healey, A. 1970. Proto-Awyu-Dumut Phonology. In Wurm, S.A. and Laycock, D. C. (eds). Pacific Linguistic Studies in honour of Arthur Capell. Pacific Linguistics: Canberra. Proto-Awyu. TransNewGuinea.org. From (1) Voorhoeve, C. L. 2000. Proto Awyu-Dumut phonology II. In A. Pawley, M. Ross, & D. Tryon (Eds.), The Boy from Bundaberg: studies in Melanesian linguistics in honour of Tom Dutton (pp. 361–381). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics; (2) Healey, A. 1970. Proto-Awyu-Dumut Phonology. In Wurm, S.A. and Laycock, D. C. (eds). Pacific Linguistic Studies in honour of Arthur Capell. Pacific Linguistics: Canberra. Proto-Dumut. TransNewGuinea.org. From (1) Voorhoeve, C. L. 2000. Proto Awyu-Dumut phonology II. In A. Pawley, M. Ross, & D. Tryon (Eds.), The Boy from Bundaberg: studies in Melanesian linguistics in honour of Tom Dutton (pp. 361–381). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics; (2) Healey, A. 1970. Proto-Awyu-Dumut Phonology. In Wurm, S.A. and Laycock, D. C. (eds). Pacific Linguistic Studies in honour of Arthur Capell. Pacific Linguistics: Canberra.
External links The Awyu–Ndumut languages in their linguistic and cultural context (University of Amsterdam) Timothy Usher, New Guinea World, Proto–Digul River – Ok (ibid.) Proto–Digul River (see also reconstructions of North and Central Digul River) (ibid.) Digul River. New Guinea World.