Oneness Pentecostalism (also known as Apostolic Pentecostalism, Oneness Apostolicism, Jesus' Name Pentecostalism, or the Oneness movement) is a nontrinitarian movement of Pentecostal Christianity that emphasizes the absolute oneness of God and the full deity of Jesus Christ. It teaches that God is a singular divine spiritundivided and without distinction of personswho reveals himself in various ways, including as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This theology is often categorized by scholars as a form of Modalistic Monarchianism, though Oneness theologians have sought to distinguish their beliefs from historical Sabellianism and Patripassianism.
Oneness Pentecostal soteriology emphasizes repentance, full-submersion water baptism in the name of Jesus Christ, and baptism in the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in other tongues, which together constitutes the new birth experience. Many Oneness Pentecostal groups also promote holiness standards in dress, grooming, and conduct, which are understood as outward expressions of inward spiritual transformation and obedience to biblical commands.
The Oneness Pentecostal movement first emerged in North America in the early 20th century following doctrinal disputes within the nascent Finished Work Pentecostal movement. It has since grown into a global movement with an estimated 30 million adherents worldwide. It was often referred to as the Jesus Only movement in its early days, which may be misleading as it does not deny the existence of the Father or Holy Spirit.
History
The first Pentecostals were Holiness Pentecostals teaching three works of grace: the new birth, receipt of entire sanctification, and baptism with the Holy Spirit accompanied by glossolalia. They specifically taught the Wesleyan Methodist doctrines of outward holiness and Christian perfection—an instantaneous, definitive second work of grace in which the baptized person's soul is cleansed of its original sin and made perfect in love. Finished Work Pentecostals broke away from the Holiness Pentecostals, rejecting the Wesleyan Methodist doctrine of entire sanctification as an instantaneous, second definite work of grace, and instead teaching only two experiences: conversion and baptism with the Holy Spirit. The Finished Work Pentecostal branch further partitioned into Trinitarian and nontrinitarian branches, with the latter forming Oneness Pentecostalism. The Oneness Pentecostal movement began in 1913 as the result of doctrinal disputes within the nascent Finished Work Pentecostal movement, specifically within the Assemblies of God, the first Finished Work Pentecostal denomination.
Movement beginnings
The emergence of Oneness Pentecostalism as a distinct movement can be traced to the doctrinal split between Finished Work Pentecostalism and Holiness Pentecostalism, known as the "Finished Work" controversy. The controversy arose from a sermon by William Howard Durham titled The Finished Work of Calvary. In this message, Durham rejected the doctrine of entire sanctification as a separate and subsequent experience to justification, asserting instead that both were accomplished simultaneously at conversion. He grounded his teaching in the belief that the crucifixion of Jesus constituted a "finished work," rendering unnecessary any additional second work of grace. Durham emphasized that Jesus functioned as both sanctifier and baptizer with the Holy Spirit, with all spiritual benefits flowing from the completed work at Calvary through identification with him. Although Durham died before the emergence of Oneness theology, this Christocentric emphasis picked up in the Finished Work Pentecostal movement would later influence theological frameworks within the Oneness Pentecostal movement, particularly its doctrine of the oneness of God.
After Durham's death, many Finished Work Pentecostals remained expectant for further restoration of apostolic teachings and anticipated a greater "Latter Rain." In July 1912, Maria Woodworth-Etter was invited by Dallas pastor F. F. Bosworth to hold revival services at his church. Although initially scheduled for two weeks, the meetings extended for over five months, with nightly services drawing significant crowds. According to reports in Word and Witness, a Pentecostal periodical edited by E. N. Bell, more than 5,000 people attended the meetings, which featured reports of miraculous healings and over 1,200 individuals embracing the Pentecostal experience. These events contributed to a growing sense among many Pentecostals that a new work of God was imminent.
Following the success of the Dallas meetings, Canadian preacher R. J. Scott approached Woodworth-Etter with the idea of organizing a large-scale revival focused on spiritual unity. The resulting event, known as the Apostolic Faith World-Wide Camp Meeting, was held in Arroyo Seco, California beginning on April 15, 1913. Organizers anticipated that God would "deal with them, giving them a unity and power that we have not yet known." The meeting opened with a sermon on Jeremiah 31:22, proclaiming that God was imminently about to perform a "new thing" during the gathering. A few days later, during a scheduled baptismal service, Canadian minister R.E. McAlister preached a "new revelation" (considered a theological restoration by those who adopted the teaching) that a baptismal formula in "the name of Jesus" only was to be preferred over the mainstream Nicene Christian Trinitarian formula ("Father, Son, and Holy Ghost") found in Matthew 28:19, pointing rather to Acts 2:38 ("in the name of Jesus") as the authoritative model. The statement caused immediate controversy, and Frank Denny, a Pentecostal missionary to China, jumped on the platform in an attempt to censor McAlister and avoid being associated with Joshua Sykes who was baptizing in that way.
However, McAlister's revelation inspired a young minister named John G. Schaepe. After all-night prayer and bible study, he proclaimed the following day that he had also received a private revelation against Trinitarian baptism. His judgment was accepted by several others in the camp and given further theological development by a minister named Frank Ewart. Ewart also continued to promote the theology of the movement through his periodical Meat in Due Season and became the primary developer of the doctrine in its early stages. Another attendee of the camp meeting, evangelist Glenn Cook took the message with him back to the Midwestern United States. Although early proponents described their doctrinal insights as a "revelation," both Oneness and Trinitarian Pentecostals affirmed that all doctrine must be grounded in Scripture, not independent of it.
A year later, on April 15, 1914, Ewart and Cook publicly baptized each other specifically in "the name of the Lord Jesus Christ" in a tank set up in Ewart's crusade tent. This is considered to be the historical point when Oneness Pentecostalism emerged as a distinct movement. As it grew, the movement added prominent leaders as G. T. Haywood, the African-American pastor of a large Assemblies of God church in Indianapolis; Franklin Small from Winnipeg, Canada; and Andrew Urshan, a Persian evangelist. The soteriology of the Oneness movement was primarily outlined by these three men, who identified Acts 2:38 as the primary plan of salvation.
A number of ministers claimed they were baptizing in Jesus' name before 1914, including Urshan and Small. Urshan claimed to have baptized others in Jesus' name as early as 1910, and Small claimed to have baptized 30 in Jesus' name only at the Annual Pentecostal Convention in Winnipeg in November 1913. In addition, Charles Parham was recorded baptizing using a similar formula during the Azusa Street revival; until 1914, both Parham and William J. Seymour baptized using this Christological formula but repudiated the new movement's nontrinitarian teachings amidst the controversy as they baptized as Christocentric Trinitarians. Other baptisms in the name of Jesus were performed as far back as the 19th century, prior to the development of Oneness Pentecostal theologythough some used justification similar to that of the later Oneness Pentecostals.
In the Assemblies of God, the re-baptisms in only Jesus' name caused a backlash from many Trinitarians. Particularly controversial was the re-baptism of E. N. Bellwho was the chairman of the Assemblies of God at the timeby Indianapolis pastor L.V. Roberts at a camp meeting in Jackson, TN in 1915. Though he remained Trinitarian, the re-baptism remained a source of confusion over his views. The dispute between Oneness and Trinitarian Pentecostals on baptism and the Godhead became known as the "New Issue", a term widely used during the controversy. It became an issue in the General Council of 1914, and in 1915, the General Council specifically focused on the issue, resulting in an "appeal for tolerance" by the Assemblies of God. The issue finally came to a head in October 1916 at the fourth General Council, where the mostly Trinitarian leadership, fearing that the new movement might overtake their organization, drew up a doctrinal statement affirming the truth of Trinitarianism. When the resulting Assemblies of God Statement of Fundamental Truths was adopted, a third of the Assemblies' ministers left to form Oneness congregations. After this separation, most Oneness believers became relatively isolated from other Pentecostals and mainstream Nicene Christianity more broadly.
Forming organizations Several small Oneness ministerial groups formed during and after the controversy between 1914 and 1916. Many of these groups ultimately merged into the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World (PAW), while others remained independent (e.g., the Apostolic Faith Mission Church of God).
The early PAW was racially diverse: it had both strong African-American representation in the North and white representation in the South. The organization's headquarters was located in Indianapolis, and many of the organization's conferences were held in the North where segregation laws were not in place. However, as the organization grew, divisions occurred within the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World as there were reports of racial tension in the organization, particularly over the many African Americans that held significant leadership positions. White Southerners expressed objections to the logistical and financial burdens associated with annual travel to the North, and Haywood signed all ministerial credentials as the PAW's general secretary.
Amid these tensions, White Southerners broke away from the PAW in 1924, and three new organizations were formed by 1925: the Apostolic Churches of Jesus Christ, Emmanuel's Church in Jesus Christ, and the Pentecostal Ministerial Alliance. The former two later merged to become the Apostolic Church of Jesus Christ, and the latter became the Pentecostal Church, Inc. (PCI). In 1945, a merger of two predominantly-white Oneness groups—the PCI and the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ—resulted in the formation of the United Pentecostal Church International (UPCI). Toronto pastor Howard Goss became the first UPCI general superintendent after previously holding credentials with the PCI and preaching the Oneness message, despite being affiliated with the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada until 1937. Starting with 521 member-churches, it became the largest and most influential Oneness Pentecostal organization, reporting a membership of over 6.1 million in 2025.
Oneness theology has also influenced independent Oneness Pentecostal movements that, while not officially affiliated with major denominations, embrace Jesus' name baptism and the infilling of the Holy Ghost as central to salvation.
Contemporary movement