Incense is an aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremonial reasons. It may also be used as a simple deodorant or insect repellent.
Incense is composed of aromatic plant materials, often combined with essential oils. The forms taken by incense differ with the underlying culture, and have changed with advances in technology and increasing number of uses.
Incense can generally be separated into two main types: "indirect-burning" and "direct-burning." Indirect-burning incense (or "non-combustible incense") is not capable of burning on its own, and requires a separate heat source. Direct-burning incense (or "combustible incense") is lit directly by a flame and then fanned or blown out, leaving a glowing ember that smoulders and releases a smoky fragrance. Direct-burning incense is either a paste formed around a bamboo stick, or a paste that is extruded into a stick or cone shape.
History
The word incense derives from the Latin ("to burn").
The earliest documented use of incense is associated with ancient Nubia. Archaeological excavations at Qustul, a site in Lower Nubia in present-day Sudan, uncovered one of the earliest known incense burners, dating to the A-Group culture (c. 3300–3000 BCE), predating the Early Dynastic period of Egypt. The Qustul incense burner, made of ceramic and decorated with processional imagery and symbols interpreted by some scholars as royal iconography, suggests that incense already held ritual and political significance in Nubian society.
In Ancient Egypt, incense was used for both practical and religious purposes. Egyptians burned incense to mask unpleasant odors, repel malevolent spirits, and honor the gods through ritual offerings. Resin balls discovered in prehistoric Egyptian tombs at El Mahasna demonstrate the early importance of incense and aromatic substances in Egyptian funerary practices. One of the oldest surviving incense burners dates to the Fifth Dynasty. Reliefs at the temple complex of Deir el-Bahari depict expeditions undertaken to acquire incense and aromatic resins.
The Babylonians used incense during prayers and religious offerings to oracles. From Mesopotamia, the use of incense spread to Greece and Rome.
Incense burners have also been discovered in sites associated with the Indus Valley Civilisation. Archaeological evidence suggests that aromatic oils and plant materials were primarily used for fragrance, marking one of the earliest known uses of subterranean plant parts in incense production.
In India, some of the earliest literary references to incense appear in the Vedas, particularly the Atharvaveda and the Rigveda. Incense was used both to create pleasant aromas and as part of medicinal practices. Its medicinal application became incorporated into the early traditions of Ayurveda. Certain forms of incense also functioned as natural insect repellents.
By around 2000 BCE, incense was being used in Ancient China in religious ceremonies and ritual worship.Herrera, Matthew D. (2012). (2nd ed.). San Luis Obispo: Tixlini Scriptorium. p. 1. Its use expanded during the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. Ancient Chinese incense commonly incorporated herbs and aromatic woods such as cinnamon, cassia, styrax, and sandalwood, and played an important role in formal rituals and ceremonies.
Incense culture flourished in China during the Song dynasty, when specialized buildings were constructed for incense ceremonies. The practice later spread to Japan through Korean Buddhist monks during the 6th century. These monks used incense in purification rituals, and over time the appreciation of fine incense (, ) became an important aspect of Japanese court culture during the Heian period. By the Muromachi period of the 15th and 16th centuries, incense appreciation had spread among both the warrior class and the broader urban population. Samurai are said to have perfumed their armor and helmets with incense before battle, both for ritual purposes and to leave a dignified impression upon death .
Composition
A variety of materials have been used in making incense. Historically there has been a preference for using locally available ingredients. For example, sage and cedar were used by the indigenous peoples of North America. Trading in incense materials comprised a major part of commerce along the Silk Road and other trade routes, one notably called the Incense Route.Herrera, Matthew D. Holy Smoke: The Use of Incense in the Catholic Church. San Luis Obispo: Tixlini Scriptorium, 2011. www.SmellsBells.com
Local knowledge and tools were extremely influential on the style, but methods were also influenced by migrations of foreigners, such as clergy and physicians.
Combustible base
The combustible base of a direct burning incense mixture not only binds the fragrant material together but also allows the produced incense to burn with a self-sustained ember, which propagates slowly and evenly through an entire piece of incense with such regularity that it can be used to mark time. The base is chosen such that it does not produce a perceptible smell. Commercially, two types of incense base predominate: Fuel and oxidizer mixtures: Charcoal or wood powder provides the fuel for combustion while an oxidizer such as sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate sustains the burning of the incense. Fragrant materials are added to the base prior to shaping, as in the case of powdered incense materials, or after, as in the case of essential oils. The formula for charcoal-based incense is superficially similar to black powder, though it lacks the sulfur. Natural plant-based binders: Gums such as gum arabic or gum tragacanth are used to bind the mixture together. Mucilaginous material, which can be derived from many botanical sources, is mixed with fragrant materials and water. The mucilage from the wet binding powder holds the fragrant material together while the cellulose in the powder combusts to form a stable ember when lit. The dry binding powder usually comprises about 10% of the dry weight in the finished incense. These include: Makko (incense powder) made from the bark of various trees in the genus Persea (such as Persea thunbergii) Xiangnan pi (made from the bark of trees of genus Phoebe such as Phoebe nanmu or Persea zuihoensis. Jigit: a resin based binder used in India Laha or Dar: bark based powders used in Nepal, Tibet, and other East Asian countries.
Typical compositions burn at a temperature between .
Types Incense is available in various forms and degrees of processing. They can generally be separated into "direct-burning" and "indirect-burning" types. Preference for one form over another varies with culture, tradition, and personal taste. The two differ in their composition due to the former's requirement for even, stable, and sustained burning.
Indirect-burning
Indirect-burning incense, also called "non-combustible incense", is an aromatic material or combination of materials, such as resins, that does not contain combustible material and so requires a separate heat source. Finer forms tend to burn more rapidly, while coarsely ground or whole chunks may be consumed very gradually, having less surface area. Heat is traditionally provided by charcoal or glowing embers. In the West, the best known incense materials of this type are the resins frankincense and myrrh, likely due to their numerous mentions in the Bible. Frankincense means "pure incense", though in common usage, it refers specifically to the resin of the boswellia tree.
Whole: The incense material is burned directly in raw form on top of coal embers. Powdered or granulated: Incense broken into smaller pieces burns quickly and provides brief but intense odor. Paste: Powdered or granulated incense material is mixed with a sticky incombustible binder, such as dried fruit, honey, or a soft resin and then formed to balls or small pastilles. These may then be allowed to mature in a controlled environment where the fragrances can commingle and unite. Much Arabian incense, also called "Bukhoor" or "Bakhoor", is of this type, and Japan has a history of kneaded incense, called nerikō or awasekō, made using this method. Within the Eastern Orthodox Christian tradition, raw frankincense is ground into a fine powder and then mixed with various sweet-smelling essential oils.
Direct-burning
Direct-burning incense, also called "combustible incense", is lit directly by a flame. The glowing ember on the incense will continue to smoulder and burn the rest of the incense without further application of external heat or flame. Direct-burning incense is either extruded, pressed into forms, or coated onto a supporting material. This class of incense is made from a moldable substrate of fragrant finely ground (or liquid) incense materials and odourless binder. The composition must be adjusted to provide fragrance in the proper concentration and to ensure even burning. The following types are commonly encountered, though direct-burning incense can take nearly any form, whether for expedience or whimsy.
Coil: Extruded and shaped into a coil without a core, coil incense can burn for an extended period, from hours to days, and is commonly produced and used in Chinese cultures.
Cone: Incense in this form burns relatively quickly. Incense cones were invented in Japan in the 1800s. Cored stick: A supporting core of bamboo is coated with a thick layer of incense material that burns away with the core. Higher-quality variations have fragrant sandalwood cores. This type of incense is commonly produced in India and China. When used in Chinese folk religion, these are sometimes known as "joss sticks". Dhoop or solid stick: With no bamboo core, dhoop incense is easily broken for portion control. This is the most commonly produced form of incense in Japan and Tibet. Powder: The loose incense powder used for making indirect burning incense is sometimes burned without further processing. Powder incense is typically packed into long trails on top of wood ash using a stencil and burned in special censers or incense clocks. Paper: Paper infused with resin or oils extracted from fragrant material, folded accordion style, is lit and blown out. Examples include Carta d'Armenia and Papier d'Arménie. Rope: The incense powder is rolled into paper sheets, which are then rolled into ropes, twisted tightly, then doubled over and twisted again, yielding a two-strand rope. The larger end is the bight, and may be stood vertically, in a shallow dish of sand or pebbles. The smaller (pointed) end is lit. This type of incense is easily transported and stays fresh for extremely long periods. It has been used for centuries in Tibet and Nepal.
Moxa tablets, which are disks of powdered mugwort used in Traditional Chinese medicine for moxibustion, are not incenses; the treatment is by heat rather than fragrance.
Incense sticks may be termed joss sticks, especially in parts of East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. Among ethnic Chinese and Chinese-influenced communities these are traditionally burned at temples, before the threshold of a home or business, before an image of a religious divinity or local spirit, or in shrines, large and small, found at the main entrance of every village. Here the earth god is propitiated in the hope of bringing wealth and health to the village. They can also be burned in front of a door or open window as an offering to heaven, or the devas. The word "joss" is derived from the Latin (god) via the Portuguese through the Javanese , through Chinese pidgin English.
Production
The raw materials are powdered and then mixed together with a binder to form a paste, which, for direct burning incense, is then cut and dried into pellets.
Certain proportions are necessary for direct-burning incense: