The Year of Africa refers to a series of events that took place during the year 1960—mainly the independence of seventeen African nations—that highlighted the growing pan-African sentiments in the continent. The year brought about the culmination of African independence movements and the subsequent emergence of Africa as a major force in the United Nations. These rapid political developments led to speculation and hope about the future of Africa as a whole; yet at the same time, the continent was beginning to face the realities of post-colonial violence. This year also saw the beginning of armed opposition to South African apartheid government, with political ramifications across Africa and around the world. During the year, 17 colonies became independent, including 14 colonies from the French colonial empire, 2 from the British Empire and 1 from Belgium.
Origin
O. H. Morris of the British Ministry of Colonies predicted in early January that "1960 will be a year of Africa".William Henry Chamberlin, "Africa's Year", 5 January 1960, . The phrase "year of Africa" was also used by Ralph Bunche on 16 February 1960. Bunche anticipated that many states would achieve independence in that year due to the "well nigh explosive rapidity with which the peoples of Africa in all sectors are emerging from colonialism."Paul Hoffmann, "Bunche says '60 is year of Africa", New York Times, 16 February 1960, p. 15; . The concept of a "Year of Africa" drew international media attention.Daniel Schwartz, "1960: The Year of Africa", CBC, 8 June 2010.
The mythology of the year was also influenced by the "Wind of Change" speech, delivered on 3 February 1960 by Harold Macmillan. Speaking in Cape Town, Macmillan acknowledged that imperial powers would have difficulty continuing to control their colonies.Manuel Manrique Gil, "1960–2010: 50 years of 'African independences '", On Africa, 4 January 2010. The speech represented an admission by Britain's political elite that the British Empire was over and could not be maintained. This inspired a reaction from the Empire Loyalist wing of the Conservative Party; see Conservative Monday Club. Africans also reacted. In the words of Guinean Foreign Minister Caba Sory:
Independence
During 1960, the number of independent countries rose from nine (with populations of 95 million) to twenty-six (with populations of 180 million), with 17 colonies gaining their independence, including 14 colonies from the French colonial empire, 2 from the British Empire and 1 from Belgium.
From France In response to mounting conflict in Algeria—particularly the May 1958 crisis—France created a new constitution in 1958. This constitution made colonial states part of the "French Community" (La Communauté) which restructured the French empire as a sort of federation. All member states acceded to the agreement except for Guinea, which obtained independence in 1958 when it refused to join La Communauté. Its decision led France to cut off all support but set a precedent for other French colonies.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), p. 24. "The break with France was absolute; according to a hastily devised plan, French civil servants were to leave within two months. Guinea would receive no more help from the French administration, and no more equipment credits. Overnight, Guinea found itself penniless... Guinea's daring vote of 'No' became a burning pang of conscience for all French-speaking countries." In December 1959, returning French leader Charles De Gaulle agreed that member states could have independence if they chose.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), p. 25. "As early as December 10, 1959, at the sixth session of the Executive Council of the Community, de Gaulle agreed that international sovereignty should be granted to any state which requested it, and that new agreements on co-operation might be negotiated between African states and France. The race for independence had started." All did, at a rate much faster than France anticipated.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), p. 28 Cameroon (formerly Cameroun) achieved independence on the first day of 1960 (unifying with part of the British Cameroons in 1961). Togo (formerly French Togoland) achieved independence on 27 April Mali Federation became independent on 20 June, then split into Mali and Senegal on 20 August Madagascar became independent on 26 June Dahomey (renamed to Benin in 1975) became independent on 1 August Niger, independent on 3 August Upper Volta (renamed to Burkina Faso in 1984), independent on 5 August Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire), independent on 7 August Chad, independent on 11 August Central African Republic, independent on 13 August Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville), independent on 15 August Gabon, independent on 17 August Mauritania, independent on 28 November
These countries remained within the French sphere of influence, particularly in economic terms.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), p. 35. "France was able to change its political, economic, and military status in Black Africa, and yet retain the former colonies within its sphere of influence... If France played its cards well, Africa would still be a market in which it retained a highly privileged position—a ready market for French manufactured goods and itself exporting a wide range of raw materials (notably groundnuts, palm oil, tropical timber, iron, manganese, bauxite, aluminum, and uranium." France also brokered political agreements with the Mali Federation and Madagascar, waiving the mandate that departure from the French Community would lead to the end of political ties (as it had for Guinea).De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), pp. 29–30. French companies thus accepted the arrangement, because they would remain well-positioned to profit from the newly independent countries—which also continued to use colonial (CFA) francs.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), pp. 35–36.
The new constitutions created by these countries use some ideas from the French Constitution, including values of democracy and universal rights as well as a parliamentary system with a strong executive. They also sometimes use language from the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They all emphasize Pan-Africanism over nationalism.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), pp. 75–77.
From Italy and the United Kingdom
Two countries achieved independence from the British Empire in 1960: Somalia, through the unification of British Somaliland and the Trust Territory of Somalia, and Nigeria.
On 26 June (also the day of Madagascar's independence), British Somaliland became the independent State of Somaliland. Five days later, it united with the Italian Trust Territory of Somalia to create the Somali Republic on 1 July.Foderaro, Independent Africa (1976), p. 57.
Nigeria had the largest population and best economy on the continent. It became independent on 1 October.Foderaro, Independent Africa (1976), p. 59.
Also in 1960, the Dominion of Ghana voted to become a Republic, thereby ending Queen Elizabeth II's reign 1957–1960, as the Queen of Ghana. World-famous Pan-Africanist Kwame Nkrumah, formerly the Prime Minister, was simultaneously elected President, on 27 April 1960.Francis Bennion, ; London: Butterworths, 1962.
From Belgium
The Congolese had been agitating heavily for independence, and at the beginning of 1960 Patrice Lumumba was imprisoned for inciting a riot in 1959. Recognizing that the Congo was going to become independent, Belgium freed Lumumba and allowed him to attend a conference in Brussels from 18 to 27 January. At the conference, 30 June was established as independence day for the Republic of the Congo. Lumumba won a large plurality in the May elections and became Prime Minister of the country on 30 June.Osei Boateng, "Lumumba: 'We shall show the world what the black man can do when he is allowed to work in freedom' ", New African, February 2010. The spirit of the occasion inspired the celebrated Congolese musician Le Grand Kallé to write the song "Indépendance Cha Cha", which became a pan-African hit.
The country was soon embroiled in turmoil, and Lumumba was deposed on 14 September. He was subsequently tortured and executed.Abayomi Azikiwe, "50th Anniversary of the 'Year of Africa' 1960", Pan-African News Wire, 21 April 2010. The subsequent period of instability is sometimes called the Congo Crisis.
The events in the Congo led the London Daily Express—which had consistently favoured colonialism—to denounce the "Year of Africa" and call for 1961 to be a "year of realism".Henry S. Hayward, "Belgium Gives Bitter Lesson", Christian Science Monitor, 28 December 1960, p. 1. .
South Africa
The Sharpeville massacre in South Africa took place on 21 March 1960, triggering mass underground resistance as well as international solidarity demonstrations.Imran Garda, "Sharpeville: Legacy of a massacre", Al Jazeera, 22 March 2010. This event is sometimes cited as the beginning of worldwide struggle against apartheid.David Smith, "Sharpeville 50 years on: 'At some stage all hell will break loose'", The Guardian, 19 March 2010. South African activists and academics describe it as a turning point in the resistance, marking the end of nonviolence and liberalism.Lodge, Sharpeville (2011), pp. 167–168. Some say that its biggest impact came in making white South Africans aware of the brutality with which political blacks were being suppressed.Lodge, Sharpeville (2011), p. 168. "[...] more ameliorationist perceptions shaped a parallel course of liberal scholarship both within and outside South Africa; for its constituents, Sharpeville's 'epoch-making' significance was in making the 'reality' of black urbanization and industrialization obvious to white South Africans."
On 5 October, a referendum was passed in South Africa which abolished the monarchy, which set up South Africa's leaving the Commonwealth of Nations the next year over its racial policies.
United Nations In October, Ghanaian president Kwame Nkrumah delivered an address to the United Nations, in which he discussed Africa's role in the world and the future role of the world in Africa.Ryan M. Irwin, "Imagining nation, state, and order in the mid-twentieth century", Kronos 37(1), 2011. Nkrumah asserted Africa's new power, opining that it did not wish revenge on the European nations which colonized the continent, but would insist on freedom nonetheless:
One cardinal fact of our time is the momentous impact of Africa's awakening upon the modern world. The flowing tide of African nationalism sweeps everything before it and constitutes a challenge to the colonial powers to make a just restitution for the years of injustice and crime committed against our continent. But Africa does not seek vengeance. It is against her very nature to harbor malice. Over two million of our people cry out with one voice of tremendous power. And what do they say? We do not ask for death for our oppressors; we do not pronounce wishes of ill-fate for our slave-masters; we make an assertion of a just and positive demand; our voice booms across the oceans and mountains, over the hills and valleys, in the desert places and through the vast expanse of mankind's inhabitations, and it calls out for the freedom of Africa. Africa wants her freedom. Africa must be free. It is a simple call, but it's also a signal lighting a red warning to those who would tend to ignore it.Kwame Nkrumah, speech to United Nations, excerpted on Democracy Now.