Flamingos or flamingoes () are a type of wading bird in the family Phoenicopteridae, which is the only extant family in the order Phoenicopteriformes. There are four flamingo species distributed throughout the Americas (including the Caribbean), and two species native to Afro-Eurasia.
Etymology The name flamingo comes from Portuguese or Spanish ; in turn, the word comes from Provençal – a combination of and a Germanic-like suffix -ing. The word may also have been influenced by the Spanish ethnonym or . The name of the genus, Phoenicopterus, is ; other genera names include Phoeniconaias, which means , and Phoenicoparrus, which means .
A group of flamingos is called a "flamboyance", or a "stand".
Taxonomy and systematics The family Phoenicopteridae was introduced by the French zoologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1831, with Phoenicopterus as the type genus.
Traditionally, the long-legged Ciconiiformes, probably a paraphyletic assemblage, have been considered the flamingos' closest relatives and the family was included in the order. Usually, the ibises and spoonbills of the Threskiornithidae were considered their closest relatives within this order. Earlier genetic studies, such as those of Charles Sibley and colleagues, also supported this relationship. Relationships to the waterfowl were considered as well, especially as flamingos are parasitized by feather lice of the genus Anaticola, which are otherwise exclusively found on ducks and geese. The peculiar presbyornithids were used to argue for a close relationship between flamingos, waterfowl, and waders. A 2002 paper concluded they are waterfowl, but a 2014 comprehensive study of bird orders found that flamingos and grebes are not waterfowl, but rather are part of Columbea, along with doves, sandgrouse, and mesites. Relationship with grebes
Recent molecular studies have suggested a relation with grebes, while morphological evidence also strongly supports a relationship between flamingos and grebes. They hold at least 11 morphological traits in common, which are not found in other birds. Many of these characteristics have been previously identified on flamingos, but not on grebes. The fossil palaelodids can be considered evolutionarily, and ecologically, intermediate between flamingos and grebes.
For the grebe-flamingo clade, the taxon Mirandornithes ("miraculous birds" due to their extreme divergence and apomorphies) has been proposed. Alternatively, they could be placed in one order, with Phoenocopteriformes taking priority.
Phylogeny The cladogram below showing the phylogenetic relationships between the six extant flamingo species is based on a study by Roberto Frias-Soler and collaborators that was published in 2022; the same phylogeny was confirmed by a further study in 2026.
Species Six extant flamingo species are accepted by all recent sources. They were formerly placed in one genus (have common characteristics) Phoenicopterus. As a result of a 2014 publication, the family was reclassified into two genera.Gill, F and D Donsker (Eds). (2016). IOC World Bird List (v 6.3). In 2020, the family had three recognised genera, according to HBW. A 2026 study suggested a return to two genera, with Phoeniconaias and Phoenicoparrus sufficiently closely related that merging them into one genus made better sense; when merged, the genus Phoenicoparrus (published in 1856) takes priority over Phoeniconaias (1869). The two genera resulting can then be easily defined, with Phoenicopterus having a deep keel bone, and Phoenicoparrus a shallow keel bone.
Image Species Geographic location Lesser flamingoPhoeniconaias minor Old World Africa (South Africa, Great Rift Valley) to NW India (the most numerous flamingo). Andean flamingoPhoenicoparrus andinus New World High Andes in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina. James's or Puna flamingoPhoenicoparrus jamesi New World High Andes in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina. Chilean flamingoPhoenicopterus chilensis New World Temperate S. South America.Greater flamingoPhoenicopterus roseus Old World Parts of Africa, S. Europe and S. and SW Asia (most widespread flamingo). American or Caribbean flamingoPhoenicopterus ruber New World Caribbean islands, Caribbean Mexico, southern Florida,Scientists: Florida flamingos are native to the state, News-Press, Chad Gillis, 23 February 2018. Retrieved 29 May 2019. Belize, coastal Colombia, northern Brazil, Venezuela and Galápagos Islands. Two subspecies; P. ruber ruber in the Americas, P. ruber glyphorhynchus on the Galápagos Islands.
Prehistoric species of flamingo: Elornis? Milne-Edwards, 1868 (Late Oligocene of France, Europe) Harrisonavis (Gervais, 1852) (Middle Oligocene–Middle Miocene of C. Europe) Leakeyornis (Harrison and Walker, 1976) (Early to Middle Miocene of Lake Victoria, Kenya) Phoeniconaias proeses (De Vis 1905) (Pliocene of Lake Kanunka, Australia) Phoeniconaias siamensis Cheneval et al. 1991 (Early Miocene of Mae Long Reservoir, Thailand) Phoeniconotius Miller 1963 (Late Oligocene of South Australia) Phoenicopterus copei (Miller 1963) (Late Pleistocene of North America and Mexico) Phoenicopterus floridanus (Brodkorb 1953) (Early Pliocene of Florida) Phoenicopterus minutus Howard 1955 (Late Pleistocene of California, US) Phoenicopterus novaehollandiae Miller 1963 (Late Oligocene of South Australia) Phoenicopterus stocki (Miller 1944) (Middle Pliocene of Rincón, Mexico) Xenorhynchopsis De Vis 1905 (Pliocene to Pleistocene of Australia)
Description
The greater and American flamingos are the largest of the six different species of flamingos, both standing at tall, and weighing , while lesser flamingo is the smallest species, with a height of and weighing ; James's flamingo is only slightly larger at tall and . Flamingos can have a wingspan as small as in lesser flamingo, to as large as in greater and American flamingos.
Flamingos usually stand on one leg with the other tucked beneath the body. The reason for this behaviour is not fully understood. One theory is that standing on one leg allows the birds to conserve more body heat, given that they spend a significant amount of time wading in cold water. However, the behaviour also takes place in warm water and is also observed in birds that do not typically stand in water. An alternative theory is that standing on one leg reduces the energy expenditure for producing muscular effort to stand and balance on one leg. A study on cadavers showed that the one-legged pose could be held without any muscle activity, while living flamingos demonstrate substantially less body sway in a one-legged posture.
While walking, a flamingo's legs may appear to bend backwards. This appearance is due to the middle joint on their legs being their ankle, not their knee. Flamingos also have webbed feet that aid with swimming and they may stamp their feet in the mud to stir up food from the bottom.
Flamingos are capable flyers, and flamingos in captivity often require wing clipping to prevent escape. A pair of African flamingos which had not yet had their wings clipped escaped from the Wichita, Kansas, zoo in 2005. One was spotted in Texas 14 years later. It had been seen previously by birders in Texas, Wisconsin and Louisiana.
Young flamingos hatch with greyish-red plumage, but adults range from light pink to bright red due to aqueous bacteria and beta-carotene obtained from their food supply. A well-fed, healthy flamingo is more vibrantly coloured, thus a more desirable mate; a white or pale flamingo is usually unhealthy or malnourished. Captive flamingos are a notable exception; even if adequately nourished, they may turn a pale pink if they are not fed carotene at levels comparable to the wild.
Flamingos can open their bills by raising the upper jaw as well as by dropping the lower., page 409.
Behaviour and ecology
Feeding Flamingos are omnivores who filter-feed on brine shrimp, cyanobacteria, larvae, insects, mollusks and crustaceans. Their bills are adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they eat and are uniquely used upside-down. The filtering of food is assisted by hairy structures called lamellae, which line the mandible, and their large, rough tongue. By rapidly retracting their head, flamingos generate vortexes that stir up sediment and shrimp. Flamingos further induce directional flows by chattering their beaks, while their stomping creates eddies to trap invertebrates.
The pink or reddish colour of flamingos comes from carotenoids in their diet of animal and plant plankton. American flamingos are a brighter red colour because of the beta carotene availability in their food while the lesser flamingos are a paler pink due to ingesting a smaller amount of this pigment. These carotenoids are broken down into pigments by liver enzymes. The source of this varies by species, and affects the colour saturation. Flamingos whose sole diet is blue-green algae are darker than those that get it second-hand by eating animals that have digested blue-green algae.
Though flamingos prefer to drink freshwater, they are equipped with glands under their eyes that remove extra salt from their bodies. This organ allows them to drink saltwater as well.
Vocal behaviour
Flamingos are considered very noisy birds with their calls ranging from grunting or growling to nasal honking. Vocalizations play an important role in parent-chick recognition, ritualized displays, and keeping large flocks together. Variations in vocalizations exist in the voices of different species of flamingos.
Life cycle Flamingos are very social birds; they live in colonies whose population can number in the thousands. These large colonies are believed to serve three purposes for the flamingos: avoiding predators, maximizing food intake, and using scarce suitable nesting sites more efficiently. Before breeding, flamingo colonies split into breeding groups of about 15 to 50 birds. Both males and females in these groups perform synchronized ritual displays.Ogilvie, Malcolm; Carol Ogilvie (1986). Flamingos. Gloucester, UK: Alan Sutton Publishing Limited. . . The members of a group stand together and display to each other by stretching their necks upwards, then uttering calls while head-flagging, and then flapping their wings.Studer-Thiersch, A. (1975). "Basle Zoo", pp. 121–130 in N. Duplaix-Hall and J. Kear, editors. Flamingos. Berkhamsted, United Kingdom: T. & A. D. Poyser, . The displays do not seem directed towards an individual, but occur randomly. These displays stimulate "synchronous nesting" (see below) and help pair up those birds that do not already have mates.
Flamingos form strong pair bonds, although in larger colonies, flamingos sometimes change mates, presumably because more mates are available to choose. Flamingo pairs establish and defend nesting territories. They locate a suitable spot on the mudflat to build a nest (the female usually selects the place). Copulation usually occurs during nest building, which is sometimes interrupted by another flamingo pair trying to commandeer the nesting site for their use. Flamingos aggressively defend their nesting sites. Both the male and the female contribute to building the nest, and to protecting the nest and egg. Same-sex pairs have been reported.
After the chicks hatch, the only parental expense is feeding. Both the male and the female feed their chicks with a kind of crop milk, produced in glands lining the whole of the upper digestive tract (not just the crop). The hormone prolactin stimulates production. Crop milk contains both fat and protein, as with mammalian milk, but unlike mammalian milk, it contains no carbohydrates. (Pigeons and doves also produce crop milk, though just in the glands lining the crop, which contains less fat and more protein than flamingo crop milk.)