In the seventh century the pagan Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity () mainly by missionaries sent from Rome. Irish missionaries from Iona, who were proponents of Celtic Christianity, were influential in the conversion of Northumbria, but after the Synod of Whitby in 664, the Anglo-Saxon church gave its allegiance to the Pope.
Background
Christianity in Roman Britain dates to at least the 3rd century. In 313, the Edict of Milan legalised Christianity, and it quickly became the major religion in the Roman Empire. The Christian church based its organisation on Roman provinces. The church in each city was led by a bishop, and the chief city of the province was led by a metropolitan bishop. In 314, three British bishops attended the Council of Arles: Eborius from Eboracum (York), Restitutus from Londinium (London), and Adelfius possibly from Lindum Colonia (Lincoln). These cities were provincial capitals, and the bishops were likely metropolitans with authority over the other bishops in their provinces. This suggests the British church was well established by the early 4th century.
It is unclear how widely the Romano-British people adopted Christianity. Historian Marc Morris writes, "As for organized Christianity in Britain, the evidence suggests it had never been very strongly established in the first place." While archaeological evidence from Roman villas indicates that some aristocrats were Christians, Morris argues there is little evidence for the existence of urban churches. In contrast, historian Barbara Yorke concludes, "When all available evidence is drawn together there is in fact a strong case for permeation of Christianity at all levels of Romano-British society".
Roman rule ended at the start of the 5th century. After the departure of the Roman army, the Britons recruited the Germanic peoples called Anglo-Saxons to defend Britain, but they rebelled against their British hosts in 442. Writing in the 8th century, Bede divided the Anglo-Saxons into three major groups: Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The Angles founded the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. The Saxons founded the kingdoms of Sussex (South Saxons), Essex (East Saxons), and Wessex (West Saxons). The Jutes established the Kingdom of Kent and also settled on the Isle of Wight. The new inhabitants practiced Anglo-Saxon paganism, a polytheistic religion in which multiple gods were worshipped, among them Woden, Thor, and Tiw. Woden was the king of the gods, and early English kings traced their ancestry back to him .
Christianity survived in the Brittonic kingdoms of the west and north. In these regions, the church was organised around dioceses corresponding to tribal divisions. Influence from Gaul encouraged the spread of monasticism within the British church during the 6th century.
British missionaries, most famously Saint Patrick, converted Ireland to Christianity. The early medieval churches of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland shared common characteristics often described as Celtic Christianity. The Celtic and Roman churches disagreed on several issues. The most important was the date of Easter. There were other differences over baptismal customs and the style of tonsure worn by monks.
Christianisation
Gregorian mission
Pope Gregory I (590–604) sent the first missionaries to the Anglo-Saxons, and this mission ultimately culminated in England's absorption into the western patriarchate. Gregory chose Augustine to lead the mission to the Kingdom of Kent. King Æthelberht of Kent was bretwalda, a position that gave him influence over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In addition, Kent had important trade connections with Francia, and Æthelberht had some exposure to Christianity through his wife, Bertha, a Frankish princess and a Christian.
Augustine arrived on the Isle of Thanet in 597 and convinced Æthelberht to allow the preaching of the gospel. Augustine established his base at the main town of Canterbury. He took over an old Roman church that he named Christ Church (now Canterbury Cathedral). Augustine also founded the Monastery of SS. Peter and Paul (later known as St Augustine's Abbey) outside the city. Æthelberht was probably converted and baptised in 601.
In 601, Pope Gregory sent Augustine the pallium of a metropolitan bishop and a letter stating that he was to be archbishop of London. Gregory instructed him to establish twelve episcopal sees under his jurisdiction. In time, there was to be an archbishop of York also with twelve bishops under his jurisdiction. During his lifetime, Augustine was to have precedence over the archbishop of York; afterwards, precedence was to be determined by seniority of consecration. However, London belonged to King Sabert of the East Saxons, who was a pagan and sub-king to the bretwalda. It would have been politically impractical to move the metropolitan see to the capital of an inferior ruler. For these reasons, Augustine kept his see in Kent, becoming the first archbishop of Canterbury.
Pope Gregory also wrote that Augustine was to have authority over the native British bishops as well. After meeting with Augustine, around 603, the British bishops refused to recognize him as their archbishop. His successor, Laurence of Canterbury, said Bishop Dagán had refused to either share a roof with the Roman missionaries or to eat with them.
Through the influence of Æthelberht, his nephew King Sabert did convert. In 604, Augustine consecrated Mellitus as bishop of the East Saxons with his see at London (he was therefore the first known bishop of London). In the same year, Augustine consecrated Justus as the first bishop of Rochester for the people of west Kent. Upon Augustine's death around 604, he was succeeded as archbishop by Laurence of Canterbury, a member of the original mission.
The church experienced a setback when the pagan Eadbald succeeded his father Æthelberht in 616. However, Eadbald eventually converted as well. Similarly, the sons of Sabert reverted to paganism after his death and drove Mellitus out of Essex. King Rædwald of East Anglia converted but retained an altar to the old gods.
The North When Æthelfrith of Bernicia seized the neighboring kingdom of Deira, Edwin, son of Ælla of Deira fled into exile. Around 616, at the Battle of Chester, Æthelfrith ordered his forces to attack a body of monks from the Abbey of Bangor-on-Dee, "If then they cry to their God against us, in truth, though they do not bear arms, yet they fight against us, because they oppose us by their prayers."Alston, George Cyprian. "St. Dinooth." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 21 April 2019 Shortly after, Æthelfrith was killed in battle against Edwin, who with the support of Rædwald of East Anglia claimed the throne. Edwin married the Christian Æthelburh of Kent, daughter of Æthelberht, and sister of King Eadbald of Kent. A condition of their marriage was that she be allowed to continue the practice of her religion. When Æthelburh traveled north to Edwin's court, she was accompanied by the missioner Paulinus of York. Edwin eventually became a Christian, as did members of his court. When Edwin was killed in 633 at the Battle of Hatfield Chase, Æthelburh and her children returned to her brother's court in Kent, along with Paulinus. James the Deacon remained behind to serve as a missioner in the kingdom of Lindsey, but Bernicia and Deira reverted to heathenism.
Insular missions
The introduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century, presumably in interactions with Roman Britain. In 431, Pope Celestine I consecrated Palladius a bishop and sent him to Ireland to minister to the "Scots believing in Christ".Cusack, Margaret Anne, "Mission of St. Palladius", An Illustrated History of Ireland, Chapter VIII Monks from Ireland, such as Finnian of Clonard, studied in Britain at the monastery of Cadoc the Wise, at Llancarfan and other places. Later, as monastic institutions were founded in Ireland, monks from Britain, such as Ecgberht of Ripon and Chad of Mercia, went to Ireland. In 563 Columba arrived in Dál Riata from his homeland of Ireland and was granted land on Iona. This became the centre of his evangelising mission to the Picts.
When Æthelfrith of Northumbria was killed in battle against Edwin and Rædwald at the River Idle in 616, his sons fled into exile. Some of that time was spent in the kingdom of Dál Riata, where Oswald of Northumbria became Christian. At the death of Edwin's successors at the hand of Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd, Oswald returned from exile and laid claim to the throne. He defeated the combined forces of Cadwallon and Penda of Mercia at the Battle of Heavenfield. In 634, Oswald, who had spent time in exile at Iona, asked abbot Ségéne mac Fiachnaí to send missioners to Northumbria. At first, a bishop named Cormán was sent, but he alienated many people by his harshness, and returned in failure to Iona reporting that the Northumbrians were too stubborn to be converted. Aidan criticised Cormán's methods and was soon sent as his replacement.Kiefer, James E., "Aidan of Lindisfarne, Missionary", Biographical Sketches of memorable Christians of the past, Society of Archbishop Justus. 29 August 1999 Oswald gave Aidan the island of Lindisfarne, near the royal court at Bamburgh Castle. Since Oswald was fluent in both one of the and Irish, he often served as interpreter for Aidan. Aidan built churches, monasteries and schools throughout Northumbria. Lindisfarne became an important centre of Insular Christianity under Aidan, Cuthbert, Eadfrith and Eadberht. Cuthbert's tomb became a center for pilgrimage.
Monastic foundations Around 630 Eanswith, daughter of Eadbald of Kent, founded Folkestone Priory.Alston, George Cyprian. "The Benedictine Order." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 25 April 2019
William of Malmesbury says Rædwald had a step-son, Sigeberht of East Anglia, who spent some time in exile in Gaul, where he became a Christian.William of Malmesbury. Chronicle of the Kings of England, London, George Bell and Son, 1904. p. 89 After his step-brother Eorpwald was killed, Sigeberht returned and became ruler of the East Angles. Sigeberht's conversion may have been a factor in his achieving royal power, since at that time Edwin of Northumbria and Eadbald of Kent were Christian. Around 631, Felix of Burgundy arrived in Canterbury and Archbishop Honorius sent him to Sigeberht. Alban Butler says Sigeberht met Felix during his time in Gaul and was behind Felix's coming to Anglo-Saxon England.Butler, Alban. “Saint Felix, Bishop and Confessor”. Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints, 1866. CatholicSaints.Info. 7 March 2013 Felix established his episcopal see at Dommoc and a monastery at Soham Abbey. Although Felix's early training may have been influenced by the Irish tradition of Luxeuil Abbey, his loyalty to Canterbury ensured that the church in East Anglia adhered to Roman norms. Around 633, Sigeberht welcomed from Ireland, Fursey and his brothers Foillan and Ultan and gave them land to establish an abbey at Cnobheresburg. Felix and Fursey effected a number of conversions and established many churches in Sigeberht's kingdom. Around the same time Sigeberht established a monastery at Beodricesworth.