The Comics Code Authority (CCA) was a self-regulatory organization formed in 1954 by the Comics Magazine Association of America that, at the height of its influence, served as a de facto censor for most of the U.S. comic book industry. The code was voluntary, as there was no law requiring its use, and it was designed to reassure advertisers, retailers, and parents about the content of comic books. The CMAA formed the Comics Code Authority at the height of a moral panic around comics that coincided with the United States Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency hearings of 1954 and the publication of psychiatrist Fredric Wertham's book Seduction of the Innocent, both of which increasingly called for government regulation of comic books. Member organizations submitted comics to the CCA, which screened them for adherence to its code, then authorized the use of their seal on the cover if the book was found to be in compliance. Some publishers, mostly of children's comics (including Dell, Western, and Gilberton) never used the Code, but outside of children's comics, the lack of a CCA seal meant that distributors were unlikely to distribute a particular comic book. The power of the Code began to wane across the 1960s and 1970s, owing in part to changes in the distribution of comic books, the rise of underground comix, and the emergence of graphic novels and other adult comics. By 2010, only three major publishers still adhered to it: DC Comics, Archie Comics, and the now defunct Bongo Comics. Bongo broke with the CCA in 2010. DC and Archie followed in January 2011, rendering the code defunct.
Background The establishment of the Code followed years of significant backlash to the content of certain comic books as well as children's consumption of comics.See generally the books listed in the bibliography. The first widely-reprinted critique of comic books came from children's author Sterling North in 1940 when he declared that comics were "graphic insanity" in a column for the Chicago Daily News, which was later reprinted in the academic journal Childhood Education. After abating somewhat due to World War II, the anti-comics movement sprang back to life in 1948 due in part to the wider publication of Fredric Wertham's anti-comics critiques in magazines like Collier's and Saturday Review of Literature.
Formation
The Comics Magazine Association of America (CMAA) was formed in September 1954 in response to a widespread public concern over graphic violence and horror imagery in comic books. It named New York magistrate Charles F. Murphy (1920–1992), a specialist in juvenile delinquency, to head the organization and devise a self-policing "code of ethics and standards" for the industry. He established the Comics Code Authority (CCA), basing its code upon the largely unenforced code drafted by the Association of Comics Magazine Publishers in 1948, which in turn had been modeled loosely after the 1940 Hollywood Production Code, also known as the "Hays Code".
Before the CCA was adopted, some cities had already organized public burnings and bans on comic books.Costello, Matthew J. Secret Identity Crisis: Comic Books and the Unmasking of Cold War America (Continuum, 2009), , p. 32 The city councils of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and Houston, Texas, passed ordinances banning crime and horror comics, although an attempt by Los Angeles County, California, was deemed unconstitutional by the courts."The Press: Horror on the Newsstands", Time, September 27, 1954. WebCitation archive. In his introduction to Archie Americana Series Best of the Fifties, editor Victor Gorelick reminisced about the code, writing, "My first assignment, as a new art assistant, was to remove cleavages and lift up low cut blouses on Katy Keene." He also wrote of Archie artist Harry Lucey that, "His sometimes suggestive storytelling–and he was one of the best–almost cost him his job. When his pencilled stories came in, the characters were dressed on one page only. The inker, a woman, Terry Szenics, later had to draw clothes on the characters on the remaining pages."Gorelick, page ?
Although the CCA had no official control over the comics publishers, most distributors refused to carry comics that did not carry the seal.Silberkeilt, Michael, cited in Costello, page ? However, two major publishers of comics–Dell Comics and Gold Key Comics–did not display the seal, because their output was subject to a higher authority: their licensors, which included Walt Disney and the producers of many TV shows aimed at children.
Criticism and enforcement Some publishers thrived under these restrictions, while others adapted by cancelling titles and focusing on code-approved content; still others went out of business. In practice, the negative effect of not having CCA approval was lack of distribution by the comic book wholesalers, who, as one historian observed, "served as the enforcement arm of the Comics Code Authority by agreeing to handle only those comics with the seal."
Publisher William Gaines believed that clauses forbidding the words "crime", "horror", and "terror" in comic book titles had been deliberately aimed at his own best-selling titles Crime SuspenStories, The Vault of Horror, and Tales from the Crypt.Jacobs, F: "The Mad World of William M. Gaines", pages 112–114, Lyle Stuart, Inc, 1972"An Interview With William M. Gaines", Comics Journal #83 pages 76–78, Fantagraphics, Inc, 1983
Wertham dismissed the code as an inadequate half-measure. Comics analyst Scott McCloud, on the other hand, later commented that it was as if, in drawing up the code, "the list of requirements a film needs to receive a G rating was doubled, and there were no other acceptable ratings!"
"Judgment Day" In one early confrontation between a comic-book publisher and the code authorities, EC Comics' William Gaines reprinted the story "Judgment Day", from the pre-code Weird Fantasy #18 (April 1953), in Incredible Science Fiction #33 (February 1956).Thompson, Don & Maggie, "Crack in the Code", Newfangles #44, February 1971 The reprint was a replacement for the Code-rejected story "An Eye for an Eye", drawn by Angelo Torres, though "Judgment Day" was itself also objected to because of the central character being black, despite there being nothing in the Code prohibiting a black protagonist. The story, by writer Al Feldstein and artist Joe Orlando, was an allegory against racial prejudice, a point that was necessarily nullified if the lead character was not black. After an order by code administrator Charles Murphy to change the final panel, which depicted a black astronaut, Gaines engaged in a heated dispute with Murphy.Diehl, Digby (1996). Tales from the Crypt: The Official Archives, St. Martin's Press (New York) p.85 He threatened to inform the press of Murphy's objection to the story if they did not give the issue the Code Seal, causing Murphy to reverse his initial decision and allow the story to run. Soon after, however, facing the severe restrictions placed upon his comics by the CCA, and with his "New Direction" titles floundering, Gaines quit publishing comic books to concentrate on Mad.
1954 Code criteria The following shows the complete Code as it stood in 1954:Code for Editorial Matter: General standards – Part A, Code of the Comics Magazine Association of America, Inc." Crimes shall never be presented in such a way as to create sympathy for the criminal, to promote distrust of the forces of law and justice, or to inspire others with a desire to imitate criminals. Scenes of excessive violence shall be prohibited. Scenes of brutal torture, excessive and unnecessary knife and gunplay, physical agony, the gory and gruesome crime shall be eliminated. Criminals shall not be presented so as to be rendered glamorous or to occupy a position which creates a desire for emulation. Policemen, judges, government officials, and respected institutions shall never be presented in such a way as to create disrespect for established authority. All scenes of horror, excessive bloodshed, gory or gruesome crimes, depravity, lust, sadism, masochism shall not be permitted. No comic magazine shall use the words "horror" or "terror" in its title. All lurid, unsavory, gruesome illustrations shall be eliminated. Inclusion of stories dealing with evil shall be used or shall be published only where the intent is to illustrate a moral issue and in no case shall evil be presented alluringly, nor so as to injure the sensibilities of the reader. In every instance good shall triumph over evil and the criminal punished for his misdeeds. If crime is depicted it shall be as a sordid and unpleasant activity. Scenes dealing with, or instruments associated with walking dead, torture, vampires and vampirism, ghouls, cannibalism, and werewolfism are prohibited. Profanity, obscenity, smut, vulgarity, or words or symbols which have acquired undesirable meanings are forbidden. Females shall be drawn realistically without exaggeration of any physical qualities. Suggestive and salacious illustration or suggestive posture is unacceptable. Nudity with meretricious purpose and salacious postures shall not be permitted in the advertising of any product; clothed figures shall never be presented in such a way as to be offensive or contrary to good taste or morals. Nudity in any form is prohibited, as is indecent or undue exposure. Illicit sex relations are neither to be hinted at nor portrayed. Rape scenes, as well as sexual abnormalities, are unacceptable. Sex perversion or any inference to same is strictly forbidden. Seduction and rape shall never be shown or suggested.
1960s–1970s "Wolfman" and credits Writer Marv Wolfman's name was briefly a point of contention between DC Comics and the CCA. In the supernatural-mystery anthology House of Secrets #83 (Jan. 1970), the book's host introduces the story "The Stuff that Dreams are Made of" as one told to him by "a wandering wolfman". The CCA rejected the story and flagged the "wolfman" reference as a violation. Fellow writer Gerry Conway explained to the CCA that the term referred to Marv Wolfman. The CCA agreed that it would not be a violation, as long as Wolfman received a writer's credit on the first page of the story; that led to DC beginning to credit creators in its supernatural-mystery anthologies.
Updating the Code The Code was revised a number of times during 1971, initially on January 28, to allow for, among other things, the sometimes "sympathetic depiction of criminal behavior... [and] corruption among public officials" ("as long as it is portrayed as exceptional and the culprit is punished") as well as permitting some criminal activities to kill law-enforcement officers and the "suggestion but not portrayal of seduction." The clause "suggestive posture is unacceptable" was removed. Also newly allowed were "vampires, ghouls and werewolves... when handled in the classic tradition such as Frankenstein, Dracula, and other high calibre literary works written by Edgar Allan Poe, Saki, Conan Doyle and other respected authors whose works are read in schools around the world". Zombies, lacking the requisite "literary" background, remained taboo. To get around this restriction, Marvel in the mid-1970s called the apparently deceased, mind-controlled followers of various Haitian supervillains "zuvembies". This practice carried over to Marvel's superhero line: in The Avengers, when the reanimated superhero Wonder Man returns from the dead, he is referred to as a "zuvembie".Conway, Gerry (writer). "At Last: The Decision!” Avengers #151 (September 1976). DC comics published their own zombie story in Swamp Thing #16 (May 1975), where the deceased rise from their graves, while a soul-devouring demon appears in Swamp Thing #15 (April 1975).