The Beiyang government () was the internationally recognized government of the Republic of China between 1912 and 1928, based in Beijing. It was dominated by Yuan Shikai and the other generals of his Beiyang Army, hence the name.
After the 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen relinquished the presidency of the Republic of China to Yuan, the most powerful Qing general, in order to secure a peaceful abdication of the Qing court. Yuan refused to take office in the constitutional capital in Nanjing, and instead moved the central government to Beijing, where Yuan and his generals held sway. After Yuan died in 1916, the army split into various warlord factions competing for power, ushering in the Warlord Era. Nevertheless, the government maintained its legitimacy among the great powers, receiving diplomatic recognition, foreign loans, and access to tax and customs revenue. Its legitimacy was challenged in 1917 by Sun Yat-sen's Constitutional Protection Movement and was later overthrown by Chiang Kai-shek, who defeated the Beiyang warlords during the Northern Expedition that unified China in 1928. The Chiang-led Nationalist government in Nanjing succeeded as the internationally recognized government of China.
Name "Beiyang government" is the most common name used today for the Republic of China government during the period, though it was neither the official designation nor a name in popular use among contemporaries. It is instead a pejorative retronym popularized by the Nationalist government following the Northern Expedition, largely serving to delegitimize a toppled rival. By associating the former government with the Beiyang Army (a force rooted in the late Qing dynasty) and Yuan Shikai (who attempted to restore the monarchy), the name of "Beiyang government" carries connotations of imperial militarism and a lack of revolutionary credentials. In reality, the government was less of a military junta than the opposing Army and Navy Marshal stronghold that preceded the Nationalist government; although figures with Beiyang Army backgrounds held considerable influence, many prominent positions were also held by officials with no such ties.
For greater neutrality, some historians prefer terms such as "Beijing government (of the Republic of China)" (), which identifies the administration by its de facto capital without implying a particular political lineage.
History
Background
The origins of the Beiyang government lie in the aftermath of the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, after which the defeated armies of the Qing dynasty instituted a series of military reforms known as the New Army reforms, headed by general Li Hongzhang. Among the regional armies that emerged from these reforms was the Beiyang Army, named such due to being primarily based in the Beiyang region. Commanded by general Yuan Shikai, the Beiyang Army grew to become the largest and most modernized of China's New Armies, and Yuan began to become a highly influential figure in the Qing government. In 1907, Yuan was appointed to the high positions of Grand Councillor and Secretary of Foreign Affairs, which he held until being relieved of both positions by Imperial Regent Prince Chun in 1909.
In October 1911, the Tongmenghui incited troops to revolt in the Wuchang Uprising. The Qing recalled Yuan Shikai from retirement; Yuan was to lead the imperial military - his personal relationship with Beiyang Army officers was seen as a stabilizing factor - but he refused the appointment. In November, with New Army units joining the revolt, the Qing capitulated to rebel demands and agreed to reform the empire into a constitutional monarchy. The Qing national assembly drafted a constitution on November 3 and elected Yuan as Premier on November 8; the Qing confirmed the appointment on November 11. Qing attempts to suppress the uprising were inconclusive. At the end of 1911, Sun Yat-sen returned to China from France. On January 1, 1912, the Tongmenghui made Sun the president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China in Nanjing. Sun privately offered the presidency to Yuan, who had greater military resources. At the end of January 1912, the Beiyang Army pressured the Qing to replace the empire with a republic. The empire ended with Emperor Puyi abdication on February 12, 1912. An imperial edict authorized Yuan to form a provisional republican government and work with the rebels to unify the country.
Yuan Shikai and attempted imperial revival (1912–1916)
On February 13, 1912, the Republic of China's National Council elected Yuan as provisional president; Sun's support made the vote unanimous. Yuan refused to move to Nanjing, claiming that the unstable military situation in the north required his attention. The National Council created a new provisional constitution in early March and in April agreed to move to Beijing, replacing the Qing national assembly.
New political parties formed for the 1912 Republic of China National Assembly elections. The KMT was created from the Tongmenghui and led by Song Jiaoren. The Progressive Party was led by Liang Qichao. There was also the nationalistic Republican party, the Unification party, and over 300 smaller parties. Song was an outspoken critic of Yuan's domination of the cabinet and desire for extensive presidential powers. The election campaign did not address local government reform; after the Qing Empire dissolved, local gentry assumed power from imperial magistrates in positions meant to increase central government influence over local affairs. In January 1913, the KMT emerged as the dominant party from the elections.
The relationship between Yuan and the KMT deteriorated. Song was assassinated in Shanghai in March 1913; Yuan was suspected to be responsible but was not officially implicated. The state lacked revenue; the KMT was critical of Yuan's failure to reform tax collection and relying on foreign loans. Yuan dismissed pro-KMT military governors in May. The KMT's uprising, the Second Revolution was suppressed; Nanjing was captured by Beiyang forces led by General Zhang Xun in September. In October, Yuan forced the Parliament to elect him as president for a five-year term. KMT members were expelled from parliament and the party was banned. Sun went back into exile at the end of November.
Yuan worked to dismantle the republic's democratic institutions. Parliament was dissolved in January 1914; it had been adjourned in November 1913 after the expulsion of KMT members left both houses without quorums. Provincial assemblies and local government organizations were dissolved in February 1914. In May 1914, a "constitutional compact" was developed to replace the provisional constitution; the compact gave the president unlimited power over the state. Media censorship regulations were introduced in 1914. World War I reduced foreign pressure, but Japan's Twenty-One Demands of 1915 were accepted in modified form.
Yuan and his advisors, including Frank Johnson Goodnow, believed that China wanted an imperial restoration. Elements of the Qing state religion were revived; a Confucian state religion was formed and Yuan became a chief participant in ceremonies at the Temple of Heaven. In late-1915, Yuan spread rumors of popular support for his ascension to Emperor of China. A special Representative Assembly conferred the title on Yuan in November; Yuan accepted on December 12, 1915 and declared a new empire on January 1, 1916.
Yuan's attempt to revive the empire failed. There was apathy or strong disapproval from the general population, Yuan's close allies, and other countries. Multiple provinces declared independence, and continued to do so even after Yuan abolished the monarchy in March 1916. Yuan died from uremia on June 6, 1916.
The Warlord Era (1916–1920)
Vice President Li Yuanhong succeeded Yuan as president. Li reinstated the 1912 provisional constitution and reconvened the December 1912 parliament; legally, it was unclear whether Yuan's 1914 constitutional compact had priority or if the parliamentary members' three-year terms had expired. Duan Qirui, acting premier since 1913 and who opposed Yuan's imperial restoration, became premier and brought the support of old Beiyang army officers. In June 1917, Zhang Xun launched a military coup d'état; his forces occupied Beijing and announced the restoration of the Qing Empire with Puyi as emperor. The restoration ended when rival generals captured the city in July. The coup demonstrated the primacy of the warlords over the central government.
Duan and Liang Qichao was in favor of entering the war on the Allied side. President Li and Sun Yat-sen were opposed. Duan managed to strongarm parliament into breaking ties with the German Empire. Li fired Duan when his secret loans from Japan were revealed. Duan denounced his removal as illegal and set up base in Tianjin. Most of the Beiyang generals sided with Duan and demanded the dissolution of parliament. In June 1917, General Zhang Xun offered to mediate and went to Beijing with his soldiers. Backed with German funds and arms, he occupied the capital and forced Li to dissolve parliament. On July 1, he shocked the country by restoring Puyi as emperor.
After escaping to the Japanese legation, Li reappointed Duan Qirui as premier and charged him with protecting the republic. Duan led an army that quickly defeated the Manchu Restoration. Li resigned as president and was succeeded by Feng Guozhang. Duan refused to restore parliament due to his unpleasant experiences with it in the past. He argued that his victory over the Manchu Restoration counted as a second Xinhai Revolution and set out to craft a new provisional senate which would draft the election rules for a new parliament; this senate cut the number of seats in the future parliament by nearly half.
His opponents, including President Feng, disagreed, claiming that, under Duan's argument, he should resign, as the position of premier could not exist independently from parliament. Sun Yat-sen and his followers moved to Guangzhou to set up a rival government under the Constitutional Protection Movement with the backing of the Yunnan clique and the Old Guangxi clique. A rump of the old parliament held an extraordinary session.
The Beiyang government declared war on the Central Powers in August 1917 and began sending labor battalions to France and a token force to Siberia. Duan took out large loans from Japan, claiming that he planned to build an army of a million men to send to Europe but his rivals knew this army would never leave the country: its true purpose was to crush internal dissent, since it existed outside the jurisdiction of the army ministry. Meanwhile, the war between the northern and southern governments led to a stalemate as neither side could defeat the other. Duan's favoritism in promoting relatives, friends and proteges to high positions in the military and government caused strong divisions within the Beiyang army. His followers became known as the Anhui clique. His detractors rallied around President Feng and formed the Zhili clique. The Zhili clique favored peaceful negotiations with the south while Duan wanted to conquer it. Duan resigned as premier due to the president's interference but his underlings pressured Feng to restore him.