Jehovah’s Witnesses emerged from the Bible Student movement, a restorationist and Adventist-influenced movement founded by Charles Taze Russell in the 1870s. Early Bible Students adopted beliefs associated with Adventist chronology, including Christ’s invisible presence beginning in 1874 and the expectation that the “Gentile Times” would end in 1914."A sketch of the development of present truth", Zion's Watch Tower, July 15, 1906. Russell founded Zion’s Watch Tower in 1879 and incorporated the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania in 1884."Modern History of Jehovah’s Witnesses", Watchtower, January 15, 1955, page 14.

After Russell’s death in 1916, the movement divided amid disputes over leadership and doctrine. Under Joseph Franklin Rutherford, the Watch Tower Society centralized organizational authority, expanded public preaching, and introduced major doctrinal and structural changes that distinguished his followers from other Bible Student groups. In 1931, Rutherford’s organization adopted the name “Jehovah’s witnesses”, marking a formal separation from the wider Bible Student movement."A New Name", The Watch Tower, October 1, 1931, page 296–297. Substantial organizational changes continued as congregations and teaching programs worldwide came under centralized control. Further changes in its doctrines led to the prohibition of blood transfusions by members, abandonment of the cross in worship, rejection of Christmas and birthday celebrations, and the view of the biblical Armageddon as a global war by God that will destroy the wicked and restore peace on earth.Draw Close to Jehovah, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 2002, page 157. In 1945, the Watch Tower Society, which Russell had founded as a publishing house, amended its charter to state that its purposes included preaching about God's Kingdom, acting as a servant and governing agency of Jehovah's Witnesses, and sending out missionaries and teachers for the public worship of God and Jesus.

The denomination was banned in Canada in World War I, and in Germany, the Soviet Union, Canada, and Australia during World War II. Members suffered widespread persecution and mob violence in some of those countries and in the United States. The group initiated dozens of high-profile legal actions in the United States and Canada between 1938 and 1955 to establish the right of members to sell literature from door to door, abstain from flag salute ceremonies, and gain legal recognition as wartime conscientious objectors. Members of the denomination suffered persecution in some African countries in the 1960s and 1970s. Since 2004 the group has suffered a series of official bans in Russia."Russia Supreme Court bans Jehovah's Witness congregation", Jurist Legal News and Research, University of Pittsburgh School of Law, December 10, 2009.

Background

+ Timeline—1870–1916 1877 Russell and Barbour published Three Worlds 1879 Russell begins publishing Watch Tower 1881 Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society is founded 1909 First schismLetters of protest 1914 Photo-Drama of Creation released 1916 Russell dies In about 1869, Charles Taze Russell encountered Adventist preaching associated with Jonas Wendell, which renewed his interest in biblical prophecy and apocalyptic chronology."A sketch of the development of present truth", Zion's Watch Tower, July 15, 1906. Influenced by Adventist and restorationist ideas, Russell rejected doctrines such as hellfire and the immortal soul, and came to believe that Christ’s return would be invisible rather than physical. In 1876 he came into contact with Adventist publisher Nelson H. Barbour, whose chronology identified 1874 as the beginning of Christ’s invisible presence and 1914 as the end of the “Gentile Times”.Zion's Watch Tower, July 1879, page 1.

After separating from Barbour in 1879 over doctrinal disagreements, Russell began publishing Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, later known as The Watchtower. In 1881, Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society was formed to distribute literature, and in 1884 the organization was legally incorporated with Russell as president."Modern History of Jehovah’s Witnesses", Watchtower, January 15, 1955, page 14.

Russell’s followers became known as Bible Students. Their congregations operated largely autonomously, while Russell’s writings, especially Studies in the Scriptures, formed the movement’s primary doctrinal basis."Concerning profitable meetings", Zion's Watch Tower, September 15, 1895.Yearbook 1975, Watch Tower Society, 1975. By Russell’s death in 1916, the movement had expanded internationally and developed a distinct prophetic framework centered on biblical chronology and expectations surrounding 1914.Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1959, page 32.

1917-1942 Transition from Bible Student movement

+ Timeline—1916–1942 1917 Rutherford elected president of Watch Tower 1917 Second schismControl of the headquarters 1919 Publication of theGolden Age begins 1920 Rutherford publishes Millions Now Living Never Die, setting 1925 as the date for return of Old Testament "Princes" 1929 Rutherford builds Beth Sarim to hold resurrected Bible personages 1931 Third schismThe name changes to "Jehovah's witnesses" 1942 Rutherford dies Following the death of Charles Taze Russell in 1916, Joseph Franklin Rutherford was elected president of the Watch Tower Society in 1917. His leadership was immediately contested by several directors and prominent Bible Students, resulting in organizational disputes and schisms that divided the movement.Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, Commentary Press, 2002, chapter 3. A number of independent Bible Student groups emerged during this period, while Rutherford consolidated control of the Society and increasingly centralized authority at the Brooklyn headquarters.

The movement also faced government opposition during this period. Watch Tower leaders were imprisoned in the United States in 1918 under the Espionage Act before their convictions were overturned on appeal. On his release from prison, Rutherford began a major reorganization of Bible Student activities. The Watch Tower Society set up its own printing establishmentRaymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, 2007. Chapter 6. and in 1919 Rutherford founded the magazine The Golden Age (now Awake!), which the Bible Students began distributing in response to an increasing emphasis by the Brooklyn headquarters on door-to-door preaching.Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, pp. 259–260 Brooklyn appointed a "director" in each congregation in 1919, and a year later directed all congregation members who participated in the preaching work to report weekly on their witnessing activity.

Major annual conventions were organized from 1922 and 1928. At an eight-day assembly at Cedar Point, Ohio in 1922 Rutherford launched a series of international conventions under the theme "Advertise the King and Kingdom", attracting crowds of up to 20,000, The movement’s structure, methods, and teachings changed substantially. Greater emphasis was placed on organized preaching, literature distribution, large conventions, and centralized direction from headquarters.Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, 2007. Chapter 4. Door-to-door evangelism became increasingly prominent, supplemented by radio broadcasts, sound cars, and portable phonographs featuring Rutherford’s recorded sermons. Congregational autonomy was gradually reduced as the Society adopted increasingly centralized and “theocratic” forms of organization."Modern History of Jehovah’s Witnesses, Restoration of Theocratic Organization", The Watchtower, June 1, 1955. Bible Students faced bans, arrests, and mob violence in several countries because of their preaching activity and refusal to participate in patriotic ceremonies.

Rutherford's presidency was marked by extensive doctrinal revision, with many teachings associated with Russell altered or abandoned and many new teachings introduced. The Finished Mystery continued expectations that dramatic end-time events were imminent, declaring that God would destroy churches "wholesale" and church members by the millions in 1918,"The Finished Mystery 1917, p. 485, "In the year 1918, when God destroys the churches wholesale and the church members by the millions, it shall be that any that escape shall come to the works of Pastor Russell to learn the meaning of the downfall of 'Christianity.'" (Later editions read differently) and that all earthly governments would be destroyed in 1920, resulting in anarchy.The Finished Mystery, 1917 edition, p. 258, "And the mountains were not found. Even the republics will disappear in the fall of 1920. And the mountains were not found. Every kingdom of earth will pass away, be swallowed up in anarchy." (This date was changed in later editions.) Expectations also remained strong that the change of the "saints" and completion of the "body of Christ" in heaven was imminent. A Watch Tower report on the 1918 Brooklyn convention said there was good reason to believe the gathering "might be the last in this vicinity, before the great convention beyond the veil"."Brooklyn convention and memorial", The Watch Tower, April 1, 1918, page 6233, Reprints.

Disregarding Russell's rejection of 1925 as a year of prophetic importance,Watch Tower April 15, 1916 pg 126, "We cannot help it that many of our dear friends continue to tell what The Watch Tower believes, and to misrepresent its teachings ... we are not looking forward to 1925, nor to any other date. As expressly stated in The Watch Tower, we are simply going on, our last date or appointment having been passed more than a year ago... The last place to which he [Elijah] was sent was Jordan, which, we believe, corresponds to October, 1914. ... We have no different time in mind from the Scriptures on the subject and do not expect to have any." Rutherford delivered the lecture “Millions Now Living Will Never Die” in 1920, announcing that Christ's thousand-year reign would begin in 1925, bringing the restoration of an earthly paradise and the resurrection to earth of biblical “ancient worthies” such as Abraham and Isaac.Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, chap. 10 p. 138Edmond C. Gross, Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?, Xulon Press, 2001, , chapter 24. Jerusalem was expected to become the world capital, and the resurrected “princes” would communicate with humanity by radio.The Way to Paradise, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1924, pg 225, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 230. The predictions prompted some Bible Students to abandon businesses and sell homes in anticipation of the expected events, while Bible Student farmers in Canada and the United States refused to plant spring crops in 1925 and mocked members who did. In 1930, Rutherford had Beth Sarim constructed in San Diego, California, to house the resurrected “princes” expected before Armageddon.Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, Commentary Press, 2007, page 235.See March 31, 1930 Time magazine, p. 60.

The failure of the 1925 expectations contributed to further defections from the movement. Memorial attendance fell sharply between 1925 and 1928, reflecting both internal divisions and the continuing departure of many long-term Bible Students. At the same time, Rutherford continued reshaping the movement’s theology and identity. Teachings concerning “character development”, the restoration of natural Israel, and Russell’s role as the movement’s unique prophetic figure were abandoned or reinterpreted. Increasing emphasis was placed on the name “Jehovah”, the vindication of God’s sovereignty, and the organization’s role as God’s exclusive channel.