Electronic waste, also known as waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), end-of-life (EOL) electronics, or simply e-waste, describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. Electronic waste is one of the fastest-growing waste streams globally, driven by rapid technological advancement and increasing consumption of electronic devices. In 2022, approximately 62 million tonnes of electronic waste were generated globally, making it one of the fastest growing waste streams; only 22.3% were formally collected and recycled. Global e-waste generation is projected to reach 82 million tonnes by 2030. Used electronics which are destined for refurbishment, reuse, resale, salvage recycling through material recovery, or disposal are also considered e-waste. Informal processing of e-waste in developing countries can lead to adverse human health effects and environmental pollution. The growing consumption of electronic goods due to the Digital Revolution and innovations in science and technology, such as bitcoin, has led to a global e-waste problem and hazard. The rapid exponential increase in e-waste is due to frequent new-model releases, unnecessary purchases of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), short innovation cycles, low recycling rates, and a drop in the average lifespan of computers.
Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful materials such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Recycling and disposal of e-waste may involve significant risk to the health of workers and their communities.
Definitions
When an electronic product is discarded after its useful life, it becomes electronic waste, or e-waste.
The European Union (EU) classifies e-waste into ten categories (EU-10):
Large household appliances Small household appliances IT and telecommunications equipment Consumer equipment and photovoltaic panels Lighting equipment Electrical and electronic tools Toys, leisure, and sports equipment Medical devices Monitoring and control instruments Automatic dispensers
These include used electronics destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal, as well as reusables (working and repairable electronics) and secondary raw materials (such as copper, steel, plastic, and similar materials). The term "waste" is reserved for residue or material that is dumped by the buyer rather than recycled, including residue from reuse and recycling operations, because loads of surplus electronics are frequently commingled (good, recyclable, and non-recyclable). Several public policy advocates use the terms "e-waste" and "e-scrap" broadly to encompass all surplus electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are among the hardest types to recycle.
Using a different set of categories, the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development defines e-waste in six categories:
Temperature exchange equipment (such as air conditioners, freezers) Screens, monitors (TVs, laptops) Lamps (LED lamps, for example) Large equipment (washing machines, electric stoves) Small equipment (microwaves, electric shavers) Small IT and telecommunication equipment (such as mobile phones, printers)
Products in each category vary in longevity profile, impact, and collection methods, among other differences.Baldé, C. P., et al., The Global E-waste Monitor 2017, UNU, ITU, ISWA, 2017 Around 70% of toxic waste in landfills is electronic waste, even though e-waste accounts for only 3% of the waste in landfills.
CRTs have a relatively high concentration of lead and phosphors (not to be confused with phosphorus), both of which are necessary for the display. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) includes discarded CRT monitors in its category of "hazardous household waste" but considers CRTs that have been set aside for testing to be commodities if they are recycled or exported for recycling, under certain conditions. These CRT devices are often confused with the DLP Rear Projection TV, both of which have a different recycling process due to the materials of which they are composed.
The EU and its member states operate a system through the European Waste Catalogue (EWC) – a European Council Directive implemented as "member state law". In the UK, this is set out in the List of Wastes Directive. However, the list (and EWC) provides a broad definition (EWC Code 16 02 13*) of what constitutes hazardous electronic waste, requiring "waste operators" to consult the Hazardous Waste Regulations (Annex 1A, Annex 1B) for a more refined definition. Constituent materials in the waste also require assessment via the combination of Annex II and Annex III, again allowing operators to further determine whether waste is hazardous.
Some exporters are accused of leaving difficult-to-recycle, obsolete, or non-repairable equipment mixed with loads of working equipment (for various reasons, mostly to cut costs for separation and treatment). Protectionists may broaden the definition of "waste" electronics to protect domestic markets from working secondary equipment.
The high value of the computer recycling subset of electronic waste (working and reusable laptops, desktops, and components like RAM) can help pay the cost of transportation for a larger number of worthless pieces than can be achieved with display devices, which have less (or negative) scrap value. A 2011 report, "Ghana E-waste Country Assessment", found that of 215,000 tons of electronics imported to Ghana, 30% was brand new and 70% was used. Of the used product, the study concluded that 15% was not reused and was scrapped or discarded. This contrasts with published but uncredited claims that 80% of the imports into Ghana were being burned in primitive conditions.
Quantity
E-waste is considered the "fastest-growing waste stream in the world". A study in 2024 highlights that nearly 62 million tons are generated globally every year with only 22.3% formally documented as being collected and recycled, with the rest often processed informally in developing countries, posing serious health and environmental risks. An estimated US$62 billion of key raw materials are lost annually, due to inadequate recycling efforts.
Rapid technological change, constant innovation, shifts in media (tapes, software, MP3s), falling prices, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a rapidly growing surplus of electronic waste worldwide. Truly circular technical solutions are very limited, but in most cases, a legal framework, collection, logistics, and other services need to be in place before a technical solution can be applied.
An estimated 50 million tons of e-waste are produced each year. The USA discards 30 million computers each year and 100 million phones are disposed of in Europe each year. The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that only 15–20% of e-waste is recycled, the rest of these electronics go directly into landfills and incinerators.
According to a report by UNEP titled, "Recycling – from e-waste to Resources," the amount of e-waste being produced – including mobile phones and computers – could rise by as much as 500 percent over the next decade in some countries, such as India. The United States is the world leader in producing electronic waste, tossing away about 3 million tons each year. China already produces about 10.1 million tons (2020 estimate) domestically, second only to the United States. And, despite having banned e-waste imports, China remains a major e-waste dumping ground for developed countries.
A 2023 study found that improper disposal and recycling of electronic waste significantly contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, linking electronic waste to recent global environmental problems.
A record 62 million tonnes (Mt) of e-waste was generated globally in 2022, an 82% increase from 2010, and the figure is projected to reach 82 million tonnes by 2030. In the United States, an estimated 70% of heavy metals in landfills comes from discarded electronics.
While there is agreement that the number of discarded electronic devices is increasing, there is considerable disagreement about the relative risk (compared to automobile scrap, for example), and strong disagreement about whether curtailing trade in used electronics will improve conditions or make them worse. According to an article in Motherboard, attempts to restrict the trade have driven reputable companies out of the supply chain, with unintended consequences.
Global trade issues
One theory is that increased regulation of electronic waste and concern over the environmental harm in nature economies creates an economic disincentive to remove residues before export. Critics of trade in used electronics maintain that it is still too easy for brokers calling themselves recyclers to export unscreened electronic waste to developing countries, such as China, India and parts of Africa, thus avoiding the expense of removing items like bad cathode ray tubes (the processing of which is expensive and difficult). Developing countries have become toxic dumping grounds for e-waste. Developing countries that receive foreign e-waste often go further by repairing and recycling forsaken equipment. Yet still 90% of e-waste ended up in landfills in developing countries in 2003. Proponents of international trade point to the success of fair trade programs in other industries, where cooperation has led to the creation of sustainable jobs and can bring affordable technology in countries where repair and reuse rates are higher.
Some supporters of the used-electronics trade say that metal extraction from virgin mining has been shifted to developing countries. Recycling copper, silver, gold, and other materials from discarded electronic devices is considered better for the environment than mining. They also state that the repair and reuse of computers and televisions have become a "lost art" in wealthier nations, and that refurbishing has traditionally been a development path.
South Korea, Taiwan, and southern China all excelled at finding "retained value" in used goods and, in some cases, have set up billion-dollar industries refurbishing used ink cartridges, single-use cameras, and working CRTs. Refurbishing has traditionally been a threat to established manufacturing, and simple protectionism helps explain some of the criticism of the trade. Works like "The Waste Makers" by Vance Packard explain some of the criticism of exports of working products, for example, the ban on import of tested working Pentium 4 laptops to China, or the bans on export of used surplus working electronics by Japan.
Opponents of surplus electronics exports argue that lower environmental and labor standards, cheap labor, and the relatively high value of recovered raw materials lead to the transfer of pollution-generating activities, such as copper wire smelting. Electronic waste is often sent to various African and Asian countries, such as China, Malaysia, India, and Kenya, for processing, sometimes illegally. Many surplus laptops are routed to developing nations as "dumping grounds for e-waste".
The Basel Convention was adopted in March 1989 and is a primary global treaty that aims to regulate the transboundary movement of hazardous waste to protect countries that import such waste. The United States has not ratified the Basel Convention or its Ban Amendment, and thus has few domestic federal laws forbidding the export of toxic waste—the Basel Action Network estimates that about 80% of the electronic waste directed to recycling in the U.S. does not get recycled there at all, but is put on container ships and sent to countries such as China. This figure is disputed as an exaggeration by the EPA, the Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries, and the World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association.