Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands

Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands include Native Americans and First Nations residing in or originating from a cultural area encompassing what is now the Northeastern United States, the Midwestern United States, parts of the Southern United States, and southeastern Canada.Trigger, "Introduction" 1 It is part of a broader grouping known as the Eastern Woodlands. The Northeastern Woodlands is divided into three major areas: the Coastal, Saint Lawrence Lowlands, and Great Lakes-Riverine zones.Trigger, "Introduction" 2

The Coastal area includes the Atlantic Provinces in Canada, the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, south until North Carolina. The Saint Lawrence Lowlands area includes parts of Southern Ontario, upstate New York, much of the Saint Lawrence River area, and Susquehanna Valley. The Great Lakes-Riverine area includes the remaining inland areas of the northeast, home to Central Algonquian and Siouan speakers.Trigger, "Introduction" 3

The Great Lakes region is sometimes considered a distinct cultural region, due to the large concentration of tribes in the area. The Northeastern Woodlands region is bound by the Subarctic to the north, the Great Plains to the west, and the Southeastern Woodlands to the south."History of Pre-colonial North America." Essential Humanities. Retrieved July 13, 2013.

History

Around 200 BCE the Hopewell culture began to develop across the Midwest of what is now the United States, with its epicenter in Ohio. The Hopewell culture was defined by its extensive trading system that connected communities throughout the Eastern region, from the Great Lakes to Florida. A sophisticated artwork style developed for its goods, depicting a multitude of animals such as deer, bears, and birds. The Hopewell culture is also noted for its impressive ceremonial sites, which typically contain a burial mound and geometric earthworks. The most notable of these sites is in the Scioto River Valley (from Columbus to Portsmouth, Ohio) and adjacent Paint Creek, centered on Chillicothe, Ohio. The Hopewell culture began to decline from around 400 CE for reasons which remain unclear.

By around 1100, the distinct Iroquoian-speaking and Algonquian-speaking cultures had developed in what would become New York State and New England.Klein, Milton M. (ed.) and the New York State Historical Association, The Empire State: A History of New York, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 2001, Prominent Algonquian tribes included the Abenakis, Mi'kmaq, Penobscot, Pequots, Mohegans, Narragansetts, Pocumtucks, and Wampanoag.Bain, Angela Goebel; Manring, Lynne; and Mathews, Barbara. Native Peoples in New England. Retrieved July 21, 2010, from Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association. The Mi'kmaq, Wolastoqiyik, Passamaquoddy, Abenaki, and Penobscot tribes formed the Wabanaki Confederacy in the seventeenth century. The Confederacy covered roughly most of present-day Maine in the United States, and New Brunswick, mainland Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, Prince Edward Island and some of Quebec south of the St. Lawrence River in Canada. The Western Abenaki live on lands in New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts of the United States.Toensing, Gale Courey. , Indian Country Today (June 27, 2008), ICT Media Network

The five nations of the Iroquois League developed a powerful confederacy about the 15th century that controlled territory throughout present-day New York, into Pennsylvania and around the Great Lakes.Horatio Gates Spafford, LL.D. A Gazetteer of the State of New-York, Embracing an Ample Survey and Description of Its Counties, Towns, Cities, Villages, Canals, Mountains, Lakes, Rivers, Creeks and Natural Topography. Arranged in One Series, Alphabetically: With an Appendix… (1824), at Schenectady Digital History Archives, selected extracts, accessed December 28, 2014 The Iroquois confederacy or Haudenosaunee became the most powerful political grouping in the Northeastern woodlands, and still exists today. The confederacy consists of the Mohawk, Cayuga, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca and Tuscarora tribes.

The area that is now the states of New Jersey and Delaware was inhabited by the Lenni-Lenape or Delaware, who were also an Algonquian people. Most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland in the 18th century by expanding European colonies, and now the majority of them live in Oklahoma.

Culture

The characteristics of the Northeastern woodlands cultural area include the use of wigwams and longhouses for shelter and of wampum as a means of exchange.Northeast American Indian Facts Native American Indian Facts Retrieved March 7, 2019. Wampum consisted of small beads made from quahog shells.

The birchbark canoe was first used by the Algonquin Indians and its use later spread to other tribes and to early French explorers, missionaries and fur traders. The canoes were used for carrying goods, and for hunting, fishing, and warfare, and varied in length from about 4.5 metres (15 feet) to about 30 metres (100 feet) in length for some large war canoes.

The main agricultural crops of the region were the Three Sisters: winter squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans (usually tepary beans or common beans). Originating in Mesoamerica, these three crops were carried northward over centuries to many parts of North America. The three crops were normally planted together using a technique known as companion planting on flat-topped mounds of soil. The three crops were planted in this way as each benefits from the proximity of the others. The tall maize plants provide a structure for the beans to climb, while the beans provide nitrogen to the soil that benefits the other plants. Meanwhile, the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight to prevent weeds from growing and retaining moisture in the soil.

Prior to contact Native groups in the Northeast generally lived in villages of a few hundred people, living close to their crops. Generally men did the planting and harvesting, while women processed the crops. However, some settlements could be much bigger, such as Hochelaga (modern-day Montreal), which had a population of several thousand people,Northeast Indian Culture Khan Academy. Retrieved March 7, 2019 and Cahokia, which may have housed 20,000 residents between 1050 and 1150 CE.

For many tribes, the fundamental social group was a clan, which was often named after an animal such as turtle, bear, wolf or hawk.Northeast Indian Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved March 7, 2019 The totem animal concerned was considered sacred and had a special relationship with the members of the clan.

The spiritual beliefs of the Algonquians center around the concept of Manitou (), which is the spiritual and fundamental life force that is omnipresent. Manitou also manifest itself as the Great Spirit or Gitche Manitou, who is the creator and giver of all life.

List of peoples

Anishinaabeg (Anishinabe, Neshnabé, Nishnaabe) (see also Subarctic, Plains) Algonquin,"Cultural Thesaurus" . National Museum of the American Indian. Accessed April 8, 2014. Quebec, Ontario Nipissing, Ontario Ojibwe (Chippewa, Ojibwa), Ontario, Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin Mississaugas, Ontario Saulteaux (Nakawē), Ontario Odawa people (Ottawa), Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Ontario, also currently Oklahoma; later Oklahoma Potawatomi, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ontario, Wisconsin; also currently Kansas and Oklahoma Assateague, formerly MarylandSturtevant and Trigger 241 Attawandaron (Neutral), Ontario Beothuk, formerly Newfoundland Chowanoke, formerly North Carolina Choptank people, formerly Maryland Erie, formerly Pennsylvania, New York Etchemin, Maine Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), southern Wisconsin, northern Illinois, later Iowa and Nebraska Honniasont, formerly Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia Hopewell tradition, formerly Ohio, Illinois, and Kentucky, and Black River region, 200 BCE—500 CE Housatonic, formerly Massachusetts, New YorkSturtevant and Trigger 198 Illinois Confederacy (Illiniwek), Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri; descendants in Oklahoma Cahokia, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, descendants in Oklahoma Kaskaskia, formerly Wisconsin, descendants in Oklahoma Mitchigamea, formerly Illinois Peoria, Illinois, now Oklahoma Moingona, formerly Illinois Tamaroa, formerly Illinois Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee), Ontario, Quebec, and New York Cayuga, New York, Ontario, Oklahoma Mohawk, New York, Ontario and Quebec Oneida, New York, Ontario, and Wisconsin Onondaga, New York, Ontario Seneca, New York, Ontario, Oklahoma Mingo, Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia Tuscarora, formerly North Carolina, currently New York and Ontario Kickapoo, Michigan, Illinois, Missouri, now Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Mexico Laurentian (St. Lawrence Iroquoians), formerly New York, Ontario, and Quebec, 14th century—1580 CE Lenni Lenape (Delaware), Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, now Ontario and Oklahoma Munsee-speaking subgroups, formerly Long Island and southeastern New YorkGoddard 72 Canarsie (Canarsee), formerly Long Island New YorkGoddard 72 and 237 Esopus, formerly New York, later Ontario and Wisconsin Hackensack, formerly New York Haverstraw (Rumachenanck), New York Kitchawank (Kichtawanks, Kichtawank), New YorkGoddard 237 Minisink, formerly New York Navasink, formerly to the east along the north shore of New Jersey Raritan, formerly Westchester County, New York Sinsink (Sintsink), formerly Westchester County, New York Siwanoy, formerly Massachusetts Tappan, formerly New YorkGoddard 72, 237–238 WaoranecksGoddard 238 Wappinger (Wecquaesgeek, Nochpeem), formerly New YorkGoddard 72 and 238 Warranawankongs Wiechquaeskeck, formerly New York Unami-speaking subgroups Acquackanonk, formerly Passaic River in northern New Jersey Okehocking, formerly southeast Pennsylvania Unalachtigo, Delaware, New Jersey Mahican (Stockbridge Mahican) Connecticut, Massachusetts, New York, and Vermont Manahoac, VirginiaSturtevant and Fogelson, 290 Mascouten, formerly Michigan Massachusett, formerly MassachusettsSturtevant and Trigger 161 Ponkapoag, formerly Massachusetts Meherrin, Virginia,Sturtevant and Fogelson, 293 North Carolina Menominee, Wisconsin Meskwaki (Fox), Michigan, now Iowa Miami, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, now Oklahoma Piankeshaw, formerly Indiana, descendants in Oklahoma Wea, formerly Indiana, descendants in Oklahoma Mohegan, Connecticut Monacan, VirginiaFogelson and Sturtevant 81 Montaukett (Montauk people), New York Monyton (Monetons, Monekot, Moheton) (Siouan), West Virginia and Virginia Nansemond, Virginia Nanticoke, Delaware and Maryland Accohannock Narragansett, Rhode Island Niantic, coastal Connecticut Nipmuc (Nipmuck), Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island Noquet, formerly MichiganSwanton, John (1952). The Indian Tribes of North America. Genealogical Publishing Company. pp. 243-244. Nottaway, Virginia Occaneechi (Occaneechee), VirginiaSturtevant and Fogelson, 291Sturtevant and Trigger 96 Pamplico, North Carolina Patuxent, Maryland Paugussett, Connecticut Potatuck, New York Pawtucket, Massachusetts, New Hampshire Naumkeag, Massachusetts Pequot, Connecticut Petun (Tionontate), Ontario Piscataway (Conoy), Maryland, Virginia Pocumtuc, western Massachusetts Podunk, New York, eastern Hartford County, Connecticut Powhatan Confederacy, Virginia Appomattoc, Virginia Arrohateck, Virginia Chesapeake, Virginia Chesepian, Virginia Chickahominy, Virginia Kiskiack, Virginia Mattaponi, Virginia Nansemond, Virginia Pamunkey, Virginia Paspahegh, Virginia Powhatan, Virginia Quinnipiac, Connecticut, eastern New York, northern New Jersey Rappahannock, Virginia Sauk (Sac), Michigan, now Iowa and Oklahoma Schaghticoke, western Connecticut Secotan Outerbanks, North Carolina Croatan Dasamongueponke Roanoke people Shawnee, formerly Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennessee, currently Oklahoma Shinnecock, Long Island, New York Stegarake, Virginia Stuckanox (Stukanox), Virginia