The "image of God" (; ; ) is a concept and theological doctrine in Judaism and Christianity. It is a foundational aspect of those religions' beliefs with regard to the fundamental understanding of human nature. It stems from the primary text in Genesis 1:27, which reads (in the King James Version): "So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female he created them." The exact meaning of the phrase has been debated for millennia.
Following tradition, a number of Jewish scholars, such as Saadia Gaon and Philo, argued that being made in the image of God does not mean that God possesses human-like features, but rather the reverse: that the statement is figurative language for God bestowing special honour unto humankind, which he did not confer unto the rest of creation.
The history of the Christian interpretation of the image of God has included three common lines of understanding: a substantive view locates the image of God in shared characteristics between God and humanity such as rationality or morality; a relational understanding argues that the image is found in human relationships with God and each other; and a functional view interprets the image of God as a role or function whereby humans act on God’s behalf and serve to represent God in the created order. These three views are not strictly competitive. Furthermore, a fourth and earlier viewpoint involved the physical, corporeal form of God, held by both Christians and Jews.
Doctrine associated with God's image provides important grounding for the development of human rights and the dignity of each human life regardless of class, race, gender, or disability, and it is also related to conversations about the human body's divinity and role in human life and salvation.
Biblical sources Hebrew Bible The phrase "image of God" is found in three passages in the Hebrew Bible, all in the Book of Genesis 1–11:
Apocrypha / Deuterocanonical books In the Apocrypha or Deuterocanon, there are three passages that explicitly use "image" terminology to describe humanity.
New Testament The New Testament reflects on Christ as the image of God and humans both as images of God and Christ.
Interpretation of the Biblical texts Image vs likeness Theologians have examined the difference between the concepts of the "image of God" and the "likeness of God" in human nature. Origen for instance viewed the image of God as something given at creation, while the likeness of God as something bestowed upon a person at a later time.
While "image and likeness" is a Hebraism in which an idea is reinforced using two different words, a view arose that "image and likeness" were separate; the image was the human's natural resemblance to God, the power of reason and will, while the likeness was a —a divine gift added to basic human nature. This likeness consisted of the moral qualities of God, whereas the image involved the natural attributes of God. When Adam fell, he lost the likeness, but the image remained fully intact. Humanity as humanity was still complete, but the good and holy being was spoiled.Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1998), 522. The image of God and the likeness are similar, but at the same time they are different. The image is just that, mankind is made in the image of God, whereas the likeness is a spiritual attribute of the moral qualities of God.
However, the medieval distinction between the "image" and "likeness" of God has largely been abandoned by modern interpreters. According to C. John Collins, "Since about the time of the Reformation, scholars have recognized that this [image/likeness distinction] does not suit the text itself. First, there is no "and" joining "in our image" with "after our likeness." Second, Genesis 1:27 simply reads "in God's image"; and finally, in Genesis 5:1 God made man "in the likeness of God." The best explanation for these data is to say that "in the image" and "after the likeness" refer to the same thing, with each clarifying the other."Collins, C. John, Genesis 1–4: A Linguistic, Literary, and Theological Commentary (Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2006), 62.
Specific nature of image The primary biblical texts do not convey any specific ways in which the image of God is recognized in humanity. They do not speak about rationality, morality, emotions, free will, language, or any other similar statements. The words "image" and "likeness" simply carry the basic meaning that humans are like God and represent God. "Such an explanation is unnecessary, not only because the terms had clear meanings, but also because no such list could do justice to the subject: the text only needs to affirm that man is like God, and the rest of Scripture fills in more details to explain this."Grudem, Wayne A.; Grudem, Wayne A.. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (p. 443). Zondervan. The various ways in which this is explored are found below in the discussions about substantive, relational, and functional understandings of the image of God.
Early theologians had much to say about the image of God. According to Origen, for example, the two pillars upon which the meaning of imago Dei is constructed and maintained are reason and virtue; thus, for Origen heavenly angels and humans both share in the divine image.
Progressive resemblance Early Christians recognized that the image of God was perverted by sin."Thus, the early Christians affirmed both human dignity, because people are created in the image of God, and human depravity, because the image of God in people is warped and perverted by sin." Allison, Gregg; Allison, Gregg. Historical Theology: An Introduction to Christian Doctrine (p. 322). Zondervan. The Genesis 9 text, however, confirms that the image of God is not destroyed by sin, for the image remains in humanity after the fall and flood. Without compromising a commitment to the dignity of humanity as made in the image of God, the biblical texts point to the idea that the image of God can be developed and matured.
In Genesis 5, the image of God in humanity is correlated with the image of Adam in his son Seth. Commentators have reflected that the son better reflects the father as he matures and that while there may be physical comparisons there is also a resemblance in character traits. "The biblical text, by offering us this explanation, gives us the key that while humans are all in the image of God, they likewise have the capacity to become more and more in the image of God; that is, created with the potential to mirror divine attributes."Walton, John H. Genesis (The NIV Application Commentary) (Kindle Locations 2826–2828). Zondervan. This lines up with several of the New Testament texts which refer to "being renewed in knowledge" and "being conformed to the image". The idea is that through spiritual growth and understanding one can mature spiritually and become more like God and represent him better to others.
Humans differ from all other creatures because of the self-reflective, rational nature of human thought processes – their capacity for abstract, symbolic as well as concrete deliberation and decision-making. This capacity gives the human the possibility for self-actualization and participation in a sacred reality (cf. Acts 17:28). However, the creator granted the first true humans the free will necessary to reject a relationship with the creator that manifested itself in estrangement from God, as the narrative of the fall (Adam and Eve) exemplifies, thereby rejecting or repressing their spiritual and moral likeness to God. The ability and desire to love one's self and others, and therefore God, can become neglected and even opposed. The desire to repair the in one's life can be seen as a quest for wholeness, or one's "essential" self, as described and exemplified in Christ's life and teachings. According to Christian doctrine, Jesus acted to repair the relationship with the Creator and freely offers the resulting reconciliation as a gift.General Term: Imago Dei ("image of God")
Christ as image A uniquely Christian perspective on the image of God is that Jesus Christ is the fullest and most complete example of a human in God's image. Hebrews 1:3 refers to him as "the very image of his substance" and Colossians 1:15 reveals Jesus as "the image of the invisible God". This is relevant to Christology which is beyond the scope of this article. Christians however would look to the teachings and example of Jesus to guide their spiritual maturity and conformity to the image of God.
Historical context Scholars still debate the extent to which external cultures influenced the Old Testament writers and their ideas. Mesopotamian epics contain similar elements in their own stories, such as the resting of the deity after creation. Egyptian and Mesopotamian religions at the time contained anthropomorphic conceptions of their deities, and some scholars have seen this in Genesis's use of the word "image." King Tut's full name, Tutankhaten, translates to "living image of the Aten" (the solar disk). John Walton notes, however "the practice of kings setting up images of themselves in places where they want to establish their authority. Other than that, it is only other gods who are made in the image of gods. Thus, their traditions speak of sons being in the image of their fathers but not of human beings created in the image of God.Walton, John H.. Genesis (The NIV Application Commentary) (Kindle Locations 2803–2805). Zondervan. For example, the Fakhariyah Inscription uses Aramaic cognate words for "image" and "likeness" in reference to the statue of a king from the north-eastern region of Syria during the 9th century BCE.
Moral implications The Biblical texts sketch some moral implications of the image of God in humanity. The Genesis 9 passage links the image of God to the rationale for prohibiting and punishing murder. The James 3 passage also points out that the tongue which is made by God should not curse that which God has made in his image.
To assert that humans are created in the of God may mean to recognize some special qualities of human nature which allow God to be made manifest in humans. For humans to have a conscious recognition of having been made in the image of God may mean that they are aware of being that part of the creation through whom God's plans and purposes best can be expressed and actualized; humans, in this way, can interact creatively with the rest of creation. The moral implications of the doctrine of Imago dei are apparent in the fact that, if humans are to love God, then humans must love other humans whom God has created (cf. John 13:35), as each is an expression of God. The human likeness to God can also be understood by contrasting it with that which does not image God, i.e., beings who are ostensibly without this spiritual self-awareness and the capacity for spiritual / moral reflection and growth.
In liturgical prayers
Jewish blessings In Jewish liturgy, and especially in the Siddur, there is reference to being created in the divine image. For example, in the "Blessing for a New Day" (prayed at the beginning of Shabbat by Orthodox, Conservative, and other Jewish communities) there is this line:Siddur Lev Shalem for Shabbat & Festivals. (New York, NY: Rabbinical Assembly 2016), 103.
This blessing is a version of blessings mentioned in the Tosefta (Berakhot 6:18) and in the Babylonian Talmud (Menaḥot 43b). It is also found manuscript fragments found in the Cairo Genizah.
Also, in expanding upon the ten commandments in prayer, this line exists:Siddur Lev Shalem for Shabbat & Festivals. (New York, NY: Rabbinical Assembly 2016), 364.Admittedly, the creation in God's image is not a prevalent or dominant theme in Jewish prayers, but the reference still exist.
Christian anaphoras