(Pali; संखार; Sanskrit: संस्कार or ) is a term figuring prominently in Buddhism. The word means 'formations' or 'that which has been put together' and 'that which puts together'.
In the first (passive) sense, refers to conditioned phenomena generally but specifically to all mental "dispositions".David Kalupahana, "A History of Buddhist Philosophy." University of Hawaii Press, 1992, page 71. These are called 'volitional formations' both because they are formed as a result of volition and because they are causes for the arising of future volitional actions."The word saṅkhatam is explained in various ways. But in short it means something that is made up, prepared, or concocted by way of intention." Katukurunde Ñāṇānanda, in "The Mind Stilled: 33 Lectures on Nibbāna," p. 42, online at http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net. English translations for in the first sense of the word include 'conditioned things,'See Piyadassi (1999). This is also suggested, for instance, by Bodhi (2000), p. 46, who in writing about one sense of states: 'In the widest sense, comprises all conditioned things, everything arisen from a combination of conditions.' 'determinations,'According to Bodhi (2000), p. 44, 'determinations' was used by Ven. in his Majjhima Nikaya manuscripts that ultimately were edited by Bodhi. (In the published volume, Bodhi changed 's word choice to "formations.") 'fabrications'See, for instance, Thanissaro (1997b). and 'formations' (or, particularly when referring to mental processes, 'volitional formations').See the extended discussion at Bodhi (2000), pp. 44-47. Other translations considered by but ultimately rejected by Bodhi include 'constructions' (p. 45) and 'activities' (p. 45, especially to highlight the kammic aspect of ).
In the second (active) sense of the word, refers to karma (sankhara-khandha) that leads to conditioned arising, dependent origination.See, for instance, Bodhi (2000), p. 45: is derived from the prefix (=con), "together," and the verb karoti, "to make." The noun straddles both sides of the active-passive divide. Thus are both things which put together, construct and compound other things, and the things that are put together, constructed, and compounded.
Etymology Saṅkhāra is a Pali word that is cognate with the Sanskrit word saṃskāra. The latter word is not a Vedic Sanskrit term, but found extensively in classical and epic era Sanskrit in all Indian philosophies. Saṃskāra is found in the Upanishads such as in verse 2.6 of Kaushitaki Upanishad, 4.16.2–4 of Chandogya Upanishad, 6.3.1 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as well as mentioned by the ancient Indian scholar Panini and many others. Saṅkhāra appears in the Buddhist Pitaka texts with a variety of meanings and contexts, somewhat different from the Upanishadic texts, particularly for anything to predicate impermanence.
It is a complex concept, with no single-word English translation, that fuses "object and subject" as interdependent parts of each human's consciousness and epistemological process. It connotes "impression, disposition, conditioning, forming, perfecting in one's mind, influencing one's sensory and conceptual faculty" as well as any "preparation, sacrament" that "impresses, disposes, influences or conditions" how one thinks, conceives or feels.
Contextual meaning
Conditioned things In the first (passive) sense, refers to "conditioned things" or "dispositions, mental imprint". All aggregates in the world – physical or mental concomitants, and all phenomena, state early Buddhist texts, are conditioned things. It can refer to any compound form in the universe whether a tree, a cloud, a human being, a thought or a molecule. All these are , as well as everything that is physical and visible in the phenomenal world are conditioned things, or aggregate of mental conditions. The Buddha taught that all saṅkhāras are impermanent and essenceless. These subjective dispositions, states Buddhist scholar David Kalupahana, "prevented the Buddha from attempting to formulate an ultimately objective view of the world".
Since conditioned things and dispositions are perceptions and do not have real essence, they are not reliable sources of pleasure and they are impermanent. Understanding the significance of this reality is wisdom. This "conditioned things" sense of the word Saṅkhāra appears in Four Noble Truths and in Buddhist theory of dependent origination, that is how ignorance or misconceptions about impermanence and non-self leads to Taṇhā and rebirths. The Samyutta Nikaya II.12.1 presents one such explanation, as do other Pali texts.
The last words of the Buddha, according to the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, were "Disciples, this I declare to you: All conditioned things are subject to disintegration – strive on untiringly for your liberation." (Pali: "").
Aggregate of saṅkhāra
In the second (active) sense, (or , aggregate of saṅkhāra) refers to the form-creating faculty of mind. It is part of the doctrine of conditioned arising or dependent origination (). In this sense, the term Sankhara is karmically active volition or intention, which generates rebirth and influences the realm of rebirth. Sankhara herein is synonymous with karma, and includes actions of the body, speech and mind.
The states that living beings are reborn (bhava, become) by means of actions of body and speech (kamma).See, for instance, SN 12.2 (Thanissaro, 1997b), where the Buddha states: 'And what are fabrications? These three are fabrications: bodily fabrications, verbal fabrications, mental fabrications. These are called fabrications.' The Buddha stated that all volitional constructs are conditioned by ignorance (avijja) of impermanence and non-self. It is this ignorance that leads to the origination of the sankharas and ultimately causes human suffering (dukkha). The cessation of all such sankharas () is synonymous with Awakening (bodhi), the attainment of nirvana. The end of conditioned arising or dependent origination in the karmic sense (Sankharas), yields the unconditioned phenomenon of nirvana.
As the ignorance conditions the volitional formations, these formations condition, in turn, the consciousness (viññāna). The Buddha elaborated:
'What one intends, what one arranges, and what one obsesses about: This is a support for the stationing of consciousness. There being a support, there is a landing [or: an establishing] of consciousness. When that consciousness lands and grows, there is the production of renewed becoming in the future. When there is the production of renewed becoming in the future, there is future birth, aging & death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair. Such is the origination of this entire mass of suffering & stress.'SN 12.38 (Thanissaro, 1995).
Mental factors
Mental factors (Sanskrit: caitasika; Pali: cetasika; Tibetan Wylie: sems byung) are formations (Sanskrit: saṅkhāra) concurrent with mind (Sanskrit: citta).Guenther (1975), Kindle Location 321.Kunsang (2004), p. 23.Geshe Tashi Tsering (2006), Kindle Location 456. They can be described as aspects of the mind that apprehend the quality of an object, and that have the ability to color the mind.Geshe Tashi Tsering (2006), Kindle Location 564-568.
Relation to Nibbāna The Buddha emphasized the need to purify dispositions rather than eliminate them completely.David Kalupahana, Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way. Motilal Banarsidass, 2005, page 48.
Kalupahana states that "the elimination of dispositions is epistemological suicide," as dispositions determine our perspectives. The development of one's personality in the direction of perfection or imperfection rests with one's dispositions.David Kalupahana, "A History of Buddhist Philosophy." University of Hawaii Press, 1992, page 75.
When preliminary nibbana with substrate occurs (that is, nibbana of a living being), constructive consciousness (that is, the house-builder) is completely destroyed and no new formations will be constructed. However, sankharas in the sense of constructed consciousness, which exists as a "karmically-resultant-consciousness" (vipāka viññāna), continue to exist.Steven Collins, Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1982, page 207. Each liberated individual produces no new karma, but preserves a particular individual personality which is the result of the traces of his or her karmic heritage. The very fact that there is a psycho-physical substrate during the remainder of an arahant's lifetime shows the continuing effect of karma.
English translations Activities (Ajahn Sucitto) Concoctions (Santikaro) Conditions Conditioning Factors Conditioned thingsSee Piyadassi (1999). This is also suggested, for instance, by Bodhi (2000), p. 46, who in writing about one sense of states: "In the widest sense, comprises all conditioned things, everything arisen from a combination of conditions." Constructions (similar to the idea of Social Constructionism) DeterminationsAccording to Nanavira Thera 'the word sankhāra, in all contexts, means 'something that something else depends on', that is to say a determination (determinant).' (Notes on Dhamma: Sankhāra) Fabrications Formations (Bhikkhu Bodhi)See the extended discussion at Bodhi (2000), pp. 44-47. Other translations considered by but ultimately rejected by Bodhi include "constructions" (p. 45) and "activities" (p. 45, especially to highlight the karmic aspect of ). Karmic formations Mental constructions Mental constructs (Bhante S. Dhammika) Preparations (Bhikkhu Katukurunde Ñāṇānanda)Ñāṇānanda, Katukurunde, 1988-1991, The Mind Stilled: 33 Lectures on Nibbāna, online at http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net. Bhikkhu Ñāṇānanda also notes, "in the ancient Indian society, one of the primary senses of the word saṅkhāra was the make-up done by actors and actresses" (http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net/files/eng/books/ms/nibbana_the_mind_stilled_I.pdf , p. 109). Volitional activitiesGethin, p. 136 Volitional dispositionsRadhakrishnan and Moore (1957), p. 272. Volitional formations (Bhikkhu Bodhi)
See also Sankhata Kleshas (Buddhism) Mental factors (Buddhism) Paticca-samuppada Samskara (Indian philosophy) – Hindu concept Skandha
References
Sources Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. . Geshe Tashi Tsering (2006). Buddhist Psychology: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought. Perseus Books Group. Kindle Edition. Guenther, Herbert V. & Leslie S. Kawamura (1975), Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan's "The Necklace of Clear Understanding" Dharma Publishing. Kindle Edition. Kunsang, Erik Pema (translator) (2004). Gateway to Knowledge, Vol. 1. North Atlantic Books. Piyadassi Thera (trans.) (1999). Girimananda Sutta: Discourse to Girimananda Thera (AN 10.60). Retrieved 2007-11-18 from "Access to Insight" at Girimananda Sutta: Discourse to Girimananda Thera. Radhakrishnan, S. and Moore, C.A. (1957). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1995). Cetana Sutta: Intention (SN 12.38). Retrieved 2007-11-16 from "Access to Insight" at Cetana Sutta: Intention. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997a). Avijja Sutta: Ignorance (SN 45.1). Retrieved 2007-11-16 from "Access to Insight" at Avijja Sutta: Ignorance. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997b). Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of Dependent Co-arising (SN 12.2). Retrieved 2007-11-16 from "Access to Insight" at Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of Dependent Co-arising. Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2001). Khajjaniya Sutta: Chewed Up (SN 22.79). Retrieved 2007-11-18 from "Access to Insight" at Khajjaniya Sutta: Chewed Up.