Ainu cuisine is the cuisine of the ethnic Ainu in Japan and Russia. The cuisine differs markedly from that of the majority Yamato people of Japan. Raw meat like sashimi, for example, is rarely served in Ainu cuisine, which instead uses methods such as boiling, roasting and curing to prepare meat. Also unlike Japanese cuisine, traditional Ainu cuisine did not use miso, soy sauce, or sugar, though these seasonings make an appearance in modern Ainu cuisine. The island of Hokkaidō in northern Japan is where most Ainu live today; however, they once inhabited most of the Kuril Islands, the southern half of Sakhalin island, and parts of northern Honshū Island.
There are very few Ainu restaurants in the world, though some do exist. Examples of Ainu restaurants include Haru Koro (Harukor) in Shinjuku, Tokyo, Ashiri Kotan Nakanoshima in Sapporo, and Poron'no and Marukibune in Akan, Hokkaidō.
Overview Traditional Ainu cuisine used meats obtained through fishing and hunting such as salmon and deer, wild plants gathered in the mountains such as Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs () and acorns, as well as various grains and potatoes obtained through farming. Another feature is its liberal use of oils as flavoring. Due to the Ainu's reliance on local game and fauna, not all areas used all the same ingredients, instead utilizing what was most available.
In addition to salt, the fats () from cod, sardines, herring, shark, seal, whale (), sika deer (), and bear () are used to flavor dishes. Miso and soy sauce have also been used in modern times. Soup stocks may be made using kelp (kombu), animal bone, and dried fish. Seasoning and spices include (Allium ochotense), berries from the Amur corktree (Phellodendron amurense), and wavy bittercress (Cardamine flexuosa).
Ingredients
Game
The most predominate game animal was the sika deer. Deer were hunted using poisoned arrows as well as by herding them off cliffs and gathering them from where they fell. In the past, deer were so common and easily hunted in Hokkaidō that it was said one could “put the pot on the fire, then go hunting”.
Brown bear () Chipmunk () Eurasian jay () Eurasian tree sparrow () Ezo red fox () Hazel Grouse () Japanese marten () Mallard () Oriental turtle dove () Rabbit () Raccoon dog () Sika deer ()
Fish and sea creatures The Ainu fished at sea in dugout canoes using harpoons to hunt a variety of large marine animals and used nets and fishing rods to bring in smaller creatures. Beached whales were particularly prized, as generally it was impossible to bring a whale in using canoes and harpoons. However, there were some instances of whaling in Funka Bay using harpoons coated with wolfsbane poison, aided by the gentle tides. The Ainu also used a number of tools including fishing rods, nets, traps (), and fishing baskets () to catch freshwater fish.
Bathyraja lindbergi () Capelin () Cod () Crucian carp () Dolphin () Flounder () Fur seal () Japanese dace () Japanese fluvial sculpin () Japanese huchen () Japanese smelt () Masu salmon () Ocean sunfish () Pacific herring () Pond loach () Salmon () Saffron cod () Sardine () Sea lion () Seal () Shark () Sturgeon () Swordfish () Trout () Whitespotted char ()
Gathered plants While men were responsible for hunting and fishing, women were responsible for gathering edible plants, beginning in early spring. Tools used during gathering trips into the mountains included the (a bag woven from the fibers of the Japanese lime tree), the (a small women's knife), (a type of digging stick), and the (a small pick made from deer horn). One of the most important mountain plants gathered in spring was the Siberian onion (), which is very similar to wild leeks found in Canada and the United States in taste, texture, and appearance. Large quantities of Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs () were gathered in summer as they were important as a preserved food.
Spring Anemone flaccida ( or ) Angelica () Butterbur () Bracken () Cow parsnip () Hog peanut () Japanese butterbur () Japanese mugwort () Japanese spikenard () Lance asiabell roots () Long-stamen chive bulbs () Maianthemum japonicum () Marsh-marigold roots () Ostrich fern () Siberian onion () Symplocarpus renifolius () Thistle ()
Summer Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs ()
Fall Amur cork tree berries () Crimson glory vine fruit () Hardy kiwi fruit () Hen-of-the-woods mushroom () Japanese chestnuts () Japanese emperor oak acorns () Japanese rose fruit () Mushroom () Oak acorns () Walnuts () Water caltrop fruit ()
Crops Farming was already taking place in Hokkaidō during the Jōmon period, prior to the Satsumon period in which the Ainu culture first emerged. However, agriculture began to decline in the 12th century up until the Ainu period. This is thought to be caused by the increase in demand for dried fish and furs for trade with Honshū, leading to increased importance in hunting and fishing, rather than colder weather. Cultivated crops changed over the years as new crops were introduced, such as potatoes, kabocha, and beans.
Bean varieties () Buckwheat () Foxtail millet () Japanese millet () Potato () Proso millet () Pumpkin () Turnip ()
Primary dishes
translated from Ainu means “that which has been pounded”. As the name suggests, is meat or fish that has been pounded in a way similar to the Japanese method tataki.
Making
Salmon head, milt, and remains from filleting are placed on a cutting board-like round piece of wood sliced from a tree trunk (). The meat is chopped and beaten with a sharp heavy object, such as a hatchet. The resulting paste is flavored with minced spring onion, , or long-stamen chive. Finally, the is seasoned with dried kelp and salt.
Other than salmon, a variety of meats and fish are used to add flavor to such as Japanese dace, bathyraja lindbergi, masu salmon, Japanese fluvial sculpin, deer, bear, tanuki, rabbit, and chipmunk. was well suited to the meat of older animals, as it made the tough meat easier to eat. was primarily made in the winter, when food spoiled more slowly, and was eaten over a number of days. If the was not particularly fresh, it was formed into balls and added to soup.
is soup made from boiling fish or meats with various vegetables. It may have the consistency of soup, or be more like a Japanese nabemono (hot pot) that contains a high ratio of ingredients to broth. As a hunter-gatherer society, the Ainu did not have a staple food as such, but was a central dish in their food culture. It is thought to be the roots of Hokkaidō regional dishes such as Ishikari nabe and sanpei soup. There are no specific requirements of ingredients to use for , but was generally made as described below. A stock is created by heating animal bone or small dried fish in water. Roughly chopped meat or fish is added to the stock and cooked. Dried meat and fish require longer cooking times. The scum that results from cooking the meats is not removed, as it was thought to have medicinal properties. Root vegetables or those which required longer cooking times are added, followed by high fiber mountain vegetables, and finally leafy vegetables. The soup is allowed to cook further until all ingredients are soft. The soup is flavored with animal or fish fats, a small amount of salt, and topped with ground dried kelp or dried .
Different varieties of are named by their main ingredient such as (fish soup), (bear soup), (meat soup), and (vegetable soup). Anemone flaccida was particularly suited for use in soups and was therefore called , which literally translates as “soup grass”.
Translated literally, means “mixed food”. Wild vegetables and beans are stewed until soft and the liquid has evaporated, at which point the mixture is mashed and seasoned with bear or fish oils and a small amount of salt. was made as an everyday food, as well as for offerings at ceremonies, as it was considered a sacred food. There are unlimited varieties using different ingredients, below are a few examples.
Dried symplocarpus renifolius () is rehydrated in hot water, then boiled over low heat for hours until the water evaporates. It is cut into easy-to-eat pieces and seasoned with animal fat and salt.
Beans are boiled until soft, at which point Siberian onion () stalks are added and cooked further, then seasoned with animal fat and salt.
Made from angelica () gathered in early summer. Beans are boiled until soft, then angelica is added and further boiled. Finally, it is seasoned with animal and fish fats.
Beans are boiled until soft. Dried strips of pumpkin () are rehydrated in water then boiled along with the beans. Once the pumpkin begins to break apart, the is seasoned with fish fats and salt and topped with berries from the Amur corktree ().
Also called . Potatoes () are boiled with skin on. Salmon roe () is placed in a separate pot and cooked over low heat until it starts to break down. The skin is removed from the cooked potatoes and they are sliced thickly before placing into the pot with the salmon roe. Salt is added and everything is mixed well.
The hull is removed from acorns () which are then boiled and drained multiple times with the seed coat on to remove the bitter taste. They are then placed in water with beans and boiled together. The resulting broth is discarded. The water is replaced and the mixture is boiled further until soft, at which point corn flour is added. It is cooked to the desired consistency. Rice flour is added, the mixture is kneaded, and salt and animal fats are added for seasoning.
A thin porridge made from boiling Japanese millet or rice. Generally, the grains are boiled alone, but occasionally gathered vegetables are added. Unlike other porridges in agricultural societies, is not a staple food. Rather, Ainu would fill up on fatty soups and grilled meats then drink it like tea as a palate cleanser. For that reason, was made in a small dedicated pot so as to avoid mixing oils in from other dishes. Care was also taken to avoid mixing flavors when serving by using a separate ladle specifically for serving (), rather than the usual ladle for serving soup (). As the porridge used very little grains to make, a month's supply for one person was approximately 1.8 liters. 108 liters would provide plenty for a family of five for a year.
The following are examples of varieties.
which contains , the fermented remains from the process of making Cardiocrinum cordatum () starch. The hard dried is first ground with mortar and pestle, then rehydrated in water. The sediment is removed from the water then formed into dumplings approximately three centimeters in diameter, and cooked in the . which contains the Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs themselves is also called .
The starch from Cardiocrinum cordatum bulbs is made into dumplings () and placed in the .
which contains Elsholtzia ciliata (), a mountain plant. This type of was favored for its particular aroma.
The lees () left from the fermentation process of making rice wine () is placed in .
which contains bark of the bird cherry tree ().
Salmon roe () is boiled along with the grain porridge. Raw salmon roe was only eaten in the fall as a delicacy. During other seasons, salted and dried roe () was used.
A type of dumplings. The name is derived from the Japanese which refers to dumplings or a paste made from grinding raw grains. Traditionally, were considered a luxury due to the time and effort necessary to produce the flour by grinding the grains with mortar and pestle. It was therefore not a usual everyday food, but one made as offerings for sacred days such as the Bear Festival () and Ancestors’ Festival ().
Usual ingredients were proso millet (), foxtail millet (), and rice (), though made with proso millet were considered the correct form. Over the years, other ingredients were added such as pumpkin (), and potato (). Similar to the Japanese kusamochi, the Ainu also made which mixed in Japanese mugwort (). Their flavor was enjoyed as reminiscent of spring.