Mirrors for princes or mirrors of princes () are books that most frequently take the form of textbooks for the instruction of monarchs on successful governance and behavior. Authors often composed such "mirrors" at the accession of a new king, when a young and inexperienced ruler was about to come to assume power.
Mirrors constituted a literary genre of didactic political writings that were established in antiquity but increased in popularity throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was part of the broader speculum or mirror literature genre.
The Latin term speculum principum appears as early as the 12th century and may have been used even earlier. It may have developed from the popular speculum literature popular from the 12th to 16th century, focusing on knowledge of a particular subject matter.
One of the earliest true writers on this genre is Sedulius Scottus ( 840–860), the Irish poet associated with the Pangur Bán gloss poem ( 9th century). Prior to Sedulius, other writers merely touched on the idea, as "proto" writers of this genre. Possibly the best known European "mirror" is The Prince ( 1513) by Niccolò Machiavelli, although this was not the most typical example.
Antiquity
Sumer
Instructions of Shuruppak (Early 3rd millennium BC)
Egypt
Ptahhotep, The Maxims of Ptahhotep (2375–2350 BC) Kheti III, Teaching for King Merykara () Kheti the Scribe, "Instructions of Amenemhat" (), a guide-poem on kingship for Senusret I, the son of the former Pharaoh Amenemhat I. Amenemope, Son of Kanakht, Instruction of Amenemope ()
Indian Vishnu Sharma, Panchatantra (Between 200 BC and 300 AD) Chanakya, Arthashastra (Between 200 BC and 300 AD) Narayan Pandit, Hitopadesha ( – 860 AD)
Greek and Roman Plato, Republic (375 BC) Xenophon, The Education of Cyrus (c. 370 BC) Aristotle, Politics (c. mid-4th century BC) Isocrates, To Nicocles and Evagoras Philodemus, The Good King According to Homer Dio Chrysostom, The First Discourse on Kingship, The Second Discourse on Kingship, The Third Discourse on Kingship, and The Fourth Discourse on Kingship Cicero, (44 BC) Seneca, (55–56 AD) Plutarch, () Pliny the Younger, Panegyric of Trajan (100 AD) Eusebius of Caesarea's Life of Constantine (c. 339 AD) may be a mirror for princes. This text's precise genre, audience, and aims has been a subject of scholarly controversy. Ambrose, (c. 391 AD) – although the book is for clergy, many of its lessons can be applied to secular lords due to its inspiration and criticism of Cicero's original. Augustine of Hippo, The City of God, Book V, chapter 24, "The true felicity of Christian Emperors" (c. 413–426 AD) Salvian, (439–451 AD)
Western European texts
Early Middle Ages Martin of Braga, Formula vitae honestae, (570s AD) dedicated to Suebian King Miro of Galicia. Pope Gregory the Great, The Book of Pastoral Rule (590 AD) Although dedicated to clergy, lessons may also apply to nobles. Gregory of Tours' History of the Franks (late 6th century) which warns against internal strife. Isidore of Seville, The Sentenciae (620s AD), particularly book III. De duodecim abusivis saeculi, 'On the twelve abuses of the world' (7th century), a Hiberno-Latin treatise by an anonymous Irish author sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Cyprian. This work, though not a 'mirror for princes' per se, was to be of great influence on the development of the 'genre' as it took place on the Continent.
Carolingian texts. Notable examples of Carolingian textbooks for kings, counts and other laymen include: Cathwulf, Epistolae (775) written for Charlemagne. Paulinus of Aquileia, Liber exhortationis (795), for Count Heiric of Friuli. Alcuin, De virtutibus et vitiis (–800), written for Count Wido of Brittany. Smaragdus of Saint-Mihiel, Via regia (813), arguably the first true European mirror for princes, dedicated to Louis the Pious, when king of Aquitania. Einhard's Vita Karoli Magni () which promotes Charlemagne's reign as something for other rulers to aspire to. Jonas of Orléans, De Institutione Laicali (818–828), (originally) written for Count Matfrid of Orléans. Jonas of Orléans, De Institutione Regia (), written for Pepin I of Aquitaine, apparently on the basis of a council at Orléans.A. Dubreucq (ed.), Jonas d'Orléans, Le métier du roi (De institutione regia). Sources Chrétiennes 407. Paris, 1995. pp. 45–9. Agobard of Lyons, his letters, A Comparison of Ecclesiastical and Political Government and Wherein the Dignity of the Church Outshines the Majesty of Empires and the Liber Apologeticus. (833 AD) Dhuoda, (841–843) Liber manualis, written for her son William. Sedulius Scottus, De rectoribus christianis 'On Christian rulers' (–9), addressed to King Lothar II of Lotharingia. Hincmar of Reims, De regis persona 'The Person of the King' Hincmar of Reims, De ordine palatii 'On the management of the palace' (882), which sets out the moral duties of a king and includes an account of the organisation of the palace.
Irish texts see De duodecim abusivis saeculi above. The vernacular mirrors differ from most texts mentioned here in that the ones who are described as giving and receiving advice are commonly legendary figures. Audacht Morainn ('The Testament of Morann'), written , an Old Irish text which has been called a forerunner of the 'mirrors for princes'.Rob Meens. "Politics, mirrors of princes and the Bible: sins, kings and the well-being of the realm." Early Medieval Europe 7.3 (1998): 352 The legendary wise judge Morann Mac Máin is said to have sent advice to Feradach Finnfechtnach when the latter was about to be made King of Tara. Tecosca Cormaic, 'The Instructions of Cormac', in which the speaker Cormac mac Airt is made to instruct his son Cairbre Lifechair about a variety of matters. Bríatharthecosc Con Culainn 'The precept-instruction of Cúchulainn' (interpolated in Serglige Con Culainn), addressed to Lugaid Réoderg. Tecosc Cuscraid 'The instruction of Cuscraid' Senbríathra Fithail 'The ancient precepts of Fíthal' Briathra Flainn Fína 'The Sayings of Flann Fína'
High Middle Ages Stephen I of Hungary, Admonitions (1010s), written for his son and heir presumptive Saint Emeric. Hugh of Fleury, De Regia Potestate (1118/35), dedicated to King Henry I of England Moralium dogma philosophorum (c. 1150), dedicated to King Henry II of England Benoît de Sainte-Maure, Roman de Troie (1155-1160), written for nobles. John of Salisbury, Policraticus 'The Statesman's Book' (c. 1159). Godfrey of Viterbo, Speculum regum (), dedicated to his Staufian imperial patrons, Frederick Barbarossa and his son Henry VI. Pseudo-Plutarch, Institutio Traiani (first quoted in John of Salisbury's Policraticus). Gerald of Wales, (, circulated, after revisions ) Gilles de Paris, Carolinus (), dedicated to King Louis VIII of France. Helinand of Froidmont, De bono regimine principis, (1211 - 1223) Jean de Limoges, Somnium morale Pharaonis (–60), written for Thibaut IV or Thibaut V Juan de Soria, Chronica latina regum Castellae (1239 AD) for use as a mirror for princes and to defend the rights of Castile against Leon. or , () Norwegian treatise originally written for King Magnús lagabœtir. Vincent of Beauvais, De eruditione filiorum nobilium = 'On the Education of Noble Children' (). Guibert of Tournai, Eruditio regum et principum = '''The Education of Kings and Princes' (1259), written for Louis IX. Guibert of Tournai, De modo addiscendi = 'On the Method of Learning' () written for John de Dampierre, provost of Bruges, son of Guy of Flanders. Thomas Aquinas, (), often conflated with the De regimine principum of Ptolemy of Lucca Vincent de Beauvais, De morali principis institutione = 'On the Moral Instruction of the Prince' (), probably written for Louis IX. William Peraldus, De eruditione principum = 'On the Education of Princes' (), formerly attributed to Thomas Aquinas. Brunetto Latini, Li livres dou trésor (1266), written for Charles of Anjou. Giles of Rome, De regimine principum = 'On the Rule of Princes' (), written for Philip the Fair.
Late Middle Ages Engelbert of Admont, Speculum virtutum moralium (), written for Otto, Duke of Austria and Albert II, Duke of Austria Paolino Veneto, Trattato de regimine rectoris (1313×1315), written for the Marino Badoer, duke of Crete William of Pagula, Speculum regis, written for Edward III of England (). Don Juan Manuel, Tales of Count Lucanor (1335). Don Juan Manuel, Libro Infinido o Libro de Castigos et de Consejos (1336–37) Alvarus Pelagius, Speculum regum (1340s), written for Alfonso XI of Castile.M. Pinto de Mencses (ed.). Espelho dos Reis por Alvaro Pais. Lisbon, 1955.Um styrilsi kununga ok höfþinga (1350s), Old Swedish treatiseThe III Consideracions Right Necesserye to the Good Governaunce of a Prince (), a translation of a French treatise from 1347, intended for King John II of France.Jean-Philippe Genet (ed.). Four English Political Tracts of the Later Middle Ages Camden Society, 4th ser. 18 (1977). 177-9. Philip of Leyden, De cura reipublicae et sorte principantis ("On the care of the state and the role of the ruler") (), dedicated to William V of Holland Evrart de Trémaugon, Le songe du verger (1376).Der Fürsten reget, (–1380) dedicated to William, Duke of Austria Christine de Pizan, Epistre Othea a Hector (), Livre du corps de policie (1407), Livre de la paix (between 1412 and 1414). Pierre Salmon, Dialogues (1409, rev. 1412/15), dedicated to Charles VI of France Thomas Hoccleve, De regimine principum (early 1410s) written for Henry V of England. Duarte of Portugal, Leal Conselheiro (1438), a practical manual of ethical guidance for the nobility of Portugal. Andreas Pannonius, Libellus de virtutibus Matthiae Corvino dedicatus (1467), dedicated to Matthias Corvinus, and Libellus de virtutibus Herculi Estensi dedicatus (1471), dedicated to Ercole I d'Este. John Ireland, The Meroure of Wysedome, (1490) written for James IV of Scotland. Phillipus de Bergamo, Spiegel der regyrunge (15th century) translated into middle GermanEyn kurz ordenunge in gemeyne allen den die da regieren huß, dorffere oder stede, (15th century) short text written on how to rule a household, village or cityVon der regeronge der stede, (15th century) text written on how to govern a city
Renaissance John Skelton, Speculum principis (1501), written for the future Henry VIII. A copy of this treatise, which may not be entirely the same as that presented to Henry, resides with the British Museum.Salter, F.M. "Skelton's Speculum Principis" Speculum 9 (1934): 25–37 Erasmus, Institutio principis Christiani 'Education of a Christian Prince' (1516), written as advice to King Charles of Spain (the later Charles V). Martin Luther. On Secular Authority (1523), a letter dedicated to John, Elector of Saxony Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier (1528), based on experiences of the courts of Urbino. Antonio de Guevara, Relox de príncipes (1529), inspired by and dedicated to Charles V, a bestseller of its times, translated during the 16th century to English, Latin, Italian, German, French and Dutch. Justus Menius, Oeconomia christiana (1529), dedicated to Sibylle of Cleves for a right ordering of a Christian Lutheran household Machiavelli, (, published in 1532). George Buchanan, De iure regni apud Scotos (1579), a work in the form of a Socratic dialogue on ideal kingship dedicated to the young James VI of Scotland Giovanni Botero, The Reason of State (1589), a criticism of Machiavelli's Prince. Johann Damgaard, Alithia (1597), written for the young Danish monarch King Christian IV.Olden-Jørgensen, Sebastian (ed.). Alithia. Et dansk fyrstespejl til Christian IV. UJDS-Studier 14. Copenhagen, 2003. Juan de Mariana, De rege et regis institutione (Toledo, 1598); The King and the Education of the KingJames VI of Scotland, Basilikon Doron (1599) written as a gift to his eldest son. Tomas Fernández de Medrano, República Mista (1602), dedicated to the 1st Duke of Lerma.