The United States Virgin Islands, often abbreviated USVI, are a group of islands and cays located in the Lesser Antilles of the Eastern Caribbean, consisting of three main islands (Saint Croix, Saint John, and Saint Thomas) and fifty smaller islets and cays. Like many of their Caribbean neighbors, the history of the islands is characterized by native Amerindian settlement, European colonization, and the Atlantic slave trade.
Before the colonial period, the islands were inhabited at different times by the Arawak, Ciboney, and Kalinago peoples. Europeans first encountered the islands during Columbus' second voyage. Over the next century, settlers from across Western Europe laid claim to the land and the majority of Indigenous peoples either perished or were displaced. The islands initially profited from the triangular trade, and many enslaved peoples were brought to the islands, beginning in 1673.
The islands were acquired by the Danish West India Company between 1672 and 1733, eventually becoming known as the Danish West Indies in 1754 when they came under direct control of the King of Denmark. Following a slave rebellion in 1848, slavery was abolished in the Danish territories, and the plantation economy of the islands collapsed. Faced with mounting deficits, the Danish government repeatedly attempted to sell the islands. After decades of negotiations, the United States purchased the islands in 1917.
The United States Virgin Islands officially became an unincorporated U.S. territory in 1927, the same year Virgin Islanders were granted citizenship. Having been acquired primarily for strategic military purposes, the islands were initially under the control of the U.S. Navy and remained under its administration until 1931. Following the transition to a civilian government, it was not until 1968 that Virgin Islanders were granted the right to elect their own government. Although the islands were primarily agricultural throughout their colonial history, the tourism industry has dominated life since 1970 and is now its largest sector.
Pre-Columbian history Archeological evidence shows that the Virgin Islands were inhabited for thousands of years before the arrival of Christopher Columbus. The earliest evidence of human presence on the islands comes from Saladoid-style ceramics dating back to c. 250 BCE.
The islands were inhabited at different times by the Arawak, Ciboney, and Kalinago peoples. These tribes were maritime peoples who subsisted primarily on hunting and gathering and used dugout canoes for transportation and fishing.Newsom, p. 118. The Ciboney people are thought to be the first to have settled the islands, around 300–400 BCE, followed by the Arawaks around 100–200 CE. The origins of the Ciboney people are unknown, though the Arawaks are believed to have originated from Central America, having traveled through the Lesser Antilles to reach the Virgin Islands.
The Saladoid culture was present in the Virgin Islands until c. 600 CE. This period was followed by the Ostionoid culture. An increase in the size of archeological sites dating to the Ostionoid period shows that the islands experienced population growth during this era.Newsom, pp. 31–33. The majority of rock art on the Virgin Islands is dated to the Ostionoid period, after 1000 CE. A variety of such sites are preserved on the modern-day United States Virgin Islands; on outcroppings on the coast near Congo Cay, Botany Bay, and Robin Bay; petroglyphs at Salt River; and the Reef Bay figures at the base of a waterfall. The Reef Bay figures made by the Arawak peoples during this era are preserved at the Virgin Islands National Park on St. John.
During the 14th century, the Kalinago began settling the islands. Compared to the Arawak and Chiboney peoples, who had inhabited the islands for much of their history, the Kalinago had a more militant society. Archeological remains of bows with poisoned arrows, javelins, and clubs are dated to this era. At the time of their arrival, the existing Arawak society was comparatively more agrarian and primarily armed with spears. A significant number of the Arawak either fled or were killed by the Kalinago sometime before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1493. An archaeological site at Salt River Bay shows evidence that an Arawak religious center was taken over by the Kalinago during the 14th century. Remains of tools and everyday objects crafted from bone, shell, stone, cotton, grass, and hemp have also been discovered on the islands. Pottery from the Arawaks and Kalinago has also been preserved, while a lack of ceramic evidence suggests the Ciboneys did not work with clay. At the time of European arrival, the Taíno language was spoken throughout the Virgin Islands.
Early colonial period, 1493–1733
The first documented Europeans to visit the islands arrived with Christopher Columbus. Blown off course during his 1493–1496 voyage, Columbus encountered Saint Croix on November 14, 1493. A boat was sent ashore to the island, the crew of which was met by the native Amerindians. Their encounter quickly erupted into violence. Columbus' voyage continued north, exploring Saint Thomas and Saint John, without sending his crew ashore.Boyer, p. 2.
Columbus gave the islands their original Spanish names—Santa Cruz, San Tomas, and San Juan, all names with religious meanings. The collection of tiny islets, cays, and rocks dotting the sea around them reminded Columbus of Saint Ursula and her 11,000 virgin martyrs, which inspired him to name the archipelago Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Virgenes (English: Saint Ursula and her Eleven Thousand Virgins).Pratt, p. 210. According to Diego Álvarez Chanca, Columbus had chosen the name to "exaggerate his find" to the Spanish Crown. In practice, the name of the islands was shortened to Las Vîrgenes.
Disease, forced labor, assaults, and murders took an enormous toll on both the Arawak and Kalinago populations. Spanish forces frequently raided the Virgin Islands, enslaving the Indigenous people to work the mines of the Greater Antilles. Much of the population that was not captured eventually fled to the lower Caribbean islands. Around 1550, Charles V of Spain declared the native tribes enemies of the empire. As a result, most of the remaining Indigenous population either fled, were enslaved, or were killed soon thereafter.
While the islands of Saint Thomas and Saint John were not colonized until the 17th century, the island of Saint Croix saw several colonial settlements during the 16th century. Saint Croix's location, surrounded by possessions of the Spanish Empire meant that it was settled by "only the most desperate English, French or Dutch settlers." Passing Spanish ships often raided islands of the Lesser Antilles, but they favored a route through the northern Virgin Islands which frequently spared St. Croix.Dookhan, pp. 40–49.
In 1625, English and Dutch settlers took joint possession of Saint Croix.Westergaard, p. 12. The island was later settled by the French too, leaving all three of these populations living in separate settlements. A 1645 conflict between the Dutch and English settlers resulted in the Dutch population fleeing to the Islands of St. Eustatius and St. Martin. The French population sided with the Dutch and relocated to the island of Guadeloupe. Following the incident, the English colonists remained the sole political claimants to the island until 1650, when they were ambushed by Spanish forces from Puerto Rico. After the Spanish had forced the English settlers to flee, the Dutch thought the island safe to return to, but upon their return were also attacked by the Puerto Rican authorities.Upon learning that the English had been expelled from St. Croix, the French Governor General of St. Christopher, Phillippe de Lonvilliers de Poincy, organized a military annexation of the island, which defeated the Spanish forces. Approximately 300 French colonists were then sent to resettle on the island. The colony was never profitable for the French despite further settlements in 1659 and 1661. During this time, administration of the island passed through several organizations: the Company of the American Islands (1650), Knights Hospitaller (1651–1665), and the French West India Company (1665–1696). Due to high mortality rates and economic losses, the island was abandoned in 1696, and the remaining colonists were relocated to Saint-Domingue.Westergaard, pp. 206–209, 222–225.
Danish colonial period, 1672–1917
Danish West India Company
Following the Treaty of Copenhagen in 1670, the Danish West India Company was chartered by King Christian V in 1671. Through the charter, the company was permitted to annex any islands "as might be uninhabited and suitable for plantations, or if inhabited, then by such people who have no knowledge concerning us." In particular, the charter authorized the company to occupy Saint Thomas, which was then annexed in 1672.Westergaard, pp. 31–33.Dookhan, p. 40. "The Danes found no one living on St. Thomas when they landed. The English settlers who had occupied the island after the end of the first Danish settlement, had left six or seven weeks before, though the reason for their departure is not known. [...] Denmark's long association with the Virgin Islands began with this occupation of St. Thomas in 1672." Beginning in 1673, enslaved peoples were brought from Africa to work on the plantations of St. Thomas.
From 1675 and onwards, the company made several unsuccessful attempts to colonize Saint John. Governor Jørgen Iversen Dyppel stationed two men on the island in 1675, but no permanent settlement was made. In 1684, Governor Adolph Esmit employed two merchants from Barbados who then sent 40 men to occupy the island. Esmit had hoped that by involving English subjects in a seemingly economic endeavor, he would avoid any military opposition. However, two sloops were promptly sent by Governor William Stapleton of the nearby English Leeward Islands, which drove away the men occupying the island. In 1718, the company successfully annexed Saint John by establishing a settlement in Coral Bay. By 1733, St. John had a population of 1,295, 84% of which were enslaved peoples.
Following a drought in the late 1720s, the Danish West India Company sought to expand to the nearby island of St. Croix to acquire more arable land. The island had been unoccupied by its French owners since 1696. The French were willing to sell the island to the Danish to secure their neutrality and money for the War of the Polish Succession. In 1733, the Danish West India Company purchased Saint Croix from the French West India Company in exchange for 750,000 livres. The treaty which gave Denmark sovereignty stipulated that the islands could not be sold to another nation in the future without the consent of the French government. This would become relevant 132 years later when the island was sold to the United States in 1917. When the Danish acquired it, there were approximately 150 British settlers and 400–500 enslaved people on Saint Croix, who were allowed to remain if they swore allegiance to the king of Denmark.
However, the Danish West India Company faced continued financial problems and shareholders began to consider drastic measures in order to preserve their assets. As early as 1746, it was proposed that the king take over the company's collective assets at the general assembly of shareholders. In 1754, John William Schopen presented King Frederick V with a petition on behalf of St. Croix's burgher council, urgently requesting for the colonists on St. Croix to be placed under the direct jurisdiction of the king. On May 9, 1754, the Board of Trade announced its support for the proposal. By this point, the company's debts were estimated at 1,000,000 rigsdaler.Westergaard, pp. 238–240.
Royal colonies