Zhang Wulang (), also known as Fantan Daodong Zhang Wulang () and the Inverted God (), is a deity in Chinese folk religion associated with Meishan culture. He is regarded as the patron god of hunting and the tutelary founder of the Meishan sect (). His worship is associated with central Hunan and later spread to other parts of southern China, including Yunnan, Guangxi, Chongqing, and Hubei.

Iconography Zhang Wulang is commonly depicted in an inverted posture, performing a handstand with his feet raised. In Meishan cultural practices, traditional woodcarvers use grapevine wood (葡萄藤) to make statues of him. Although the inverted posture is his most recognizable depiction, some sculptures show him standing upright with one foot placed in front of the other. These versions typically depict him wearing a narrow-sleeved shirt, trousers, and boots, sometimes with one hand resting on his waist. Other depictions show Zhang Wulang holding a knife and a rooster, or with animal-like features.

Origin

Accounts of Zhang Wulang's identity and origins vary among Meishan ritual traditions and scholarly studies. Traditions identify him variously as a Meishan hunter, the son-in-law of Taishang Laojun, a figure born from a pumpkin, a successor of Panhu or Chiyou, Zhang Shikui (张世魁), a prefect of Qingzhou, or a commander associated with the Five Routes of Changbing.

Some traditions specifically associate Zhang Wulang with Panhu and Chiyou. The relationship between these figures and Zhang Wulang has been discussed in studies of Meishan religious traditions, including research into traditions that regard Zhang Wulang as a successor of Panhu or Chiyou.

Another line of research connects Zhang Wulang with the Lushan () ritual tradition. Zhang Shihong proposed that Zhang Wulang was originally associated with Lushan ritual traditions, had studied magic under Jiulang (九郎), and was skilled at hunting tigers. According to this interpretation, traditions concerning Zhang Wulang circulated in areas including Fujian and Jiangxi before becoming associated with Meishan. Other accounts place his origins within Meishan traditions. The historical origins of Zhang Wulang therefore remain uncertain.

In certain regional traditions, particularly in Western Sichuan, the patron deity of hunters, Zhang Wulang is linked to the celestial figures known as the Seven Sages of Meishan ()—the loyal sworn brothers and subordinates of the warrior god Erlang Shen. Some regional Meishan traditions specifically identify Zhang Wulang as "Taiwei Zhang" (, "Commander Zhang"). In the classical novel Journey to the West, Taiwei Zhang is depicted as one of the four divine commanders (Kang, Zhang, Yao, and Li) who make up the core of the Meishan Brothers.

Legends

Folk narratives give different accounts of Zhang Wulang's origins. One tradition describes him as a hunter who lived during the late Tang dynasty and traveled to Lushan (闾山 or 庐山) to study magic under a practitioner named Jiulang (九郎). He was associated with tiger hunting and later came from Jiangxi to the Meishan region, where he became a hunting deity.

Another legend connects Zhang Wulang with Taishang Laojun (the Highest Elder Lord). According to this account, Zhang Wulang went to study under Taishang Laojun, who gave him a series of difficult tasks. Jiji (姬姬), the daughter of Taishang Laojun, helped Zhang Wulang complete the tasks and fell in love with him. After the two escaped, Jiji used magic to protect Zhang Wulang from her father and eventually enchanted him into the "pear tree" position, or handstand, so that Taishang Laojun could not find him. The story is associated with Zhang Wulang's title Daoli Shen (, "Inverted God").

Different Meishan ritual traditions preserve other versions of Zhang Wulang's legend. One account says that he accidentally reattached his severed head upside down after performing a somersault. Other versions attribute his inverted posture to his escape from a giant snake, a spell cast by Jiji after challenging him to walk upside down, or a fall from a cliff while fleeing a tiger. These accounts are recorded as different traditions rather than as a single canonical version of the legend.

In Yao religious traditions, the Meishan region is regarded as an ancestral homeland. Some traditions hold that after death, a person's soul returns to the "Caves of Meishan" () to reunite with the ancestors. Zhang Wulang is associated with this journey and is believed to guide or protect the soul on its way to Meishan.

Rituals

In Meishan ritual traditions, Zhang Wulang is associated with exorcism, protection, and hunting. He is invoked under the title Fantan Daodong Zhang Wulang (). Sources on Meishan ritual traditions also record invocations and spells addressed to Zhang Wulang. His statues are traditionally worshipped, and sacrifices are offered to him before hunting and other important activities. Meishan ritual practices also include healing and exorcistic rites, including rituals for driving away evil spirits, recovering souls, stopping bleeding, and treating snake-related afflictions.

Interpretations Dieter Jüdt and Gong Longyu describe Zhang Wulang as a "boundary-crosser" and trickster figure. They discuss his inverted posture in relation to the concept of the "inverted world", in which established social and cultural boundaries are temporarily reversed.

Modern cultural landmarks

At the Chinese Meishan Culture Park () in Xianxi Town, Anhua County, a 16.8-meter-tall stone statue of Zhang Wulang was erected. The statue depicts him in his characteristic inverted handstand position.

References