The modern history of Cuba began in 1959, after the Cuban Revolution led by Fidel Castro ousted a US-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista, following a guerrilla war that lasted about two years and culminated in a battle of Santa Clara. The initial period saw a climate of euphoria after the toppling of the regime.

While in power, Castro began to implement agrarian reforms, including expropriation of the foreign (mostly American) property, including the United Fruit Company, which caused conflict with the United States which in response imposed an embargo on Cuba.

Over time, Castro began to engage in contacts with Cuban communist groups, backed by his brother Raúl and Che Guevara, and Cuba's international relations became closer to the Soviet Union. While initially claiming the revolution being "humanist", Castro announced that the movement was socialist in nature in April 1961. In the same moment, the US-sponsored Bay of Pigs Invasion began and failed to topple Fidel's government. In December of the same year, Castro declared himself a Marxist–Leninist for the rest of his life.

The consolidation of the revolution culminated in the missile crisis in October 1962 which was widely considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into full-scale nuclear war. In its result, Cuba stayed a Soviet-backed communist state with centrally planned economy.

Abroad, communist Cuba supported anti-imperialist revolutionary groups, backing the establishment of Marxist governments in Chile, Nicaragua, and Grenada, as well as sending troops to aid allies in the Yom Kippur, Ogaden, and Angolan Civil wars. These actions, coupled with Castro's leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1979 to 1983 and Cuban medical internationalism, increased Cuba's profile on the world stage.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Cuba entered into a severe economic crisis known as the "Special Period" from 1991 to 2000, during which rare anti-government protests known as Maleconazo erupted in August 1994. The crisis ended after the election of pro-Cuban President Hugo Chávez in Venezuela in 1999, and the Vladimir Putin's rise to power in Russia in 2000.

In the early 2000s, Fidel Castro's health began to detoriate and he was replaced by his brother Raúl as the leader of the country. Raúl's rule was characterized by a pragmatic economic reform, rise of tourism in Cuba and diplomatic rapprochement, including a brief improvement of relations with the United States that culminated with US President Barack Obama's visit to Havana in 2016. The relations with the United States declined again when Donald Trump became President, and led to the 2026 Cuban crisis.

Early years (1959–1968)

1959

Fall of the Batista regime

Immediately after the overthrow of the Batista's regime, the unprecedented and unexpected joy broke out. Members of the Revolutionary Directorate of 13 March Movement occupied the University of Havana, and the Presidential Palace. The action was done under the pretext of anxiety. When Fidel Castro announced his victory, and the establishment of a provisional government, no mention was made of the involvement of other rebel groups in such a government. Besides the rebel occupation, Cuban citizens began to loot and vandalize Havana. Angry mobs attacked several casinos, and destroyed slot machines. Sporadic gun fights killed thirteen people. The casino at Sans Souci was set ablaze by arsonists. Alongside the chaos, many citizens filled the streets in celebration of the flight of Batista, often shouting the slogan "Abajo Batista, Viva Fidel" ("Down with Batista, Long live Fidel"). On January 2, Castro called for a general strike, and began his trek to Havana in his self-stylized "Freedom Caravan". The rebel army columns led by Che Guevara, and Camilo Cienfuegos reached Havana by January 2. The next day, Guevara secured La Cabaña fortress in Havana. The arrival of the 26th of July Movement restored order in Havana, ending the rioting. On January 8, Castro entered Havana in a triumphal way.

A provisional government led by the liberal President Manuel Urrutia Lleó was established, together with Prime Minister José Miró Cardona who was quickly replaced by Castro himself in February 1959. Once in power, Urrutia swiftly began a program of closing all brothels, gambling outlets and the national lottery, arguing that these had long been a corrupting influence on the state. The measures drew immediate resistance from the large associated workforce. The disapproving Castro, then commander of Cuba's new armed forces, intervened to request a stay of execution until alternative employment could be found.Robert E. Quirk. Fidel Castro. p229. Disagreements also arose in the new government concerning pay cuts, which were imposed on all public officials on Castro's demand. The disputed cuts included a reduction of the $100,000 a year presidential salary Urrutia had inherited from Batista.Richard Gott. Cuba. A new history. p170.

Fidel Castro's rise and consolidation of power

By February, following the surprise resignation of Miró, Castro had assumed the role of prime minister; this strengthened his power and rendered Urrutia increasingly a figurehead president.John Lee Anderson, Che Guevara : A revolutionary life. 376-405. As Urrutia's participation in the legislative process declined, other unresolved disputes between the two leaders continued to fester. His belief in the restoration of elections was rejected by Castro, who felt that they would usher in a return to the old discredited system of corrupt parties and fraudulent balloting that had marked the Batista era.The Political End of President Urrutia . Fidel Castro, by Robert E. Quirk 1993. Accessed 8th October. 2006.

Urrutia was then accused by the Avance newspaper of buying a luxury villa, which was portrayed as a frivolous betrayal of the revolution and led to an outcry from the general public. He denied the allegation issuing a writ against the newspaper in response. The story further increased tensions between the various factions in the government, though Urrutia asserted publicly that he had "absolutely no disagreements" with Fidel Castro. Urrutia attempted to distance the Cuban government (including Castro) from the growing influence of the Communists within the administration, making a series of critical public comments against the latter group. Whilst Castro had not openly declared any affiliation with the Cuban communists, Urrutia had been a declared anti-Communist since they had refused to support the insurrection against Batista,Hugh Thomas, Cuba. The pursuit for freedom. p830-832 stating in an interview, "If the Cuban people had heeded those words, we would still have Batista with us ... and all those other war criminals who are now running away".The Political End of President Urrutia . Fidel Castro, by Robert E. Quirk 1993. Accessed 8th October. 2006.

On July 17, 1959, Conrado Bécquer, the sugar workers' leader, demanded Urrutia's resignation. Castro himself resigned as Prime Minister of Cuba in protest, but later that day appeared on television to deliver a lengthy denouncement of Urrutia, claiming that Urrutia "complicated" government, and that his "fevered anti-Communism" was having a detrimental effect. Castro's sentiments received widespread support as organized crowds surrounded the presidential palace demanding Urrutia's resignation, which was duly received. On July 23, Castro resumed his position as the Prime Minister and appointed a more loyal Osvaldo Dorticós as the new president, thus gaining a dual power and strengthening his absolute control.Hugh Thomas, Cuba. The pursuit for freedom. p830-832

In October 1959, a so-called Matos affair happened. Huber Matos, a former Castro ally and a Commander of the Army in the province of Camagüey, opposed to growing influence of the communists. Fidel responded with his arrested a sentence of 20 years in prison, suppressing internal revolutionary dissent. Camilo Cienfuegos, the Commander-in-chief of the Revolutionary Armed Forces, disappeared a weak later near the Straits of Florida, which caused conspiracy theory of Fidel or Raúl Castro planning to eliminate him from a power struggle. By the end of 1959, Fidel Castro's power became unchecked and unquestioned.In 1959, coletilla was implemented, which was considered a press censorship. Soon after the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Fidel Castro announced in a speech given on April 9, 1959, that the elections which were promised to occur after the revolution were to be delayed. On May Day, 1960, Fidel Castro would outright condemn elections as corrupt, and cancel all future elections.

In the beginning of 1959, Cuban printers unions began demanding that newspapers which were critical of the government add a "coletilla" ("clarification") next to articles that rebuked critical comments in the articles. By the end of 1960, according to political scientist Paul H. Lewis, all opposition newspapers had been closed down and all radio and television stations were under state control. In nearly all areas of government, loyalty to the regime became the primary criterion for all appointments.

Repression against Batista loyalists To implement a portion of the plan of revenge, Castro named Guevara commander of the La Cabaña prison, for a five-month tenure (2 January through 12 June 1959). Guevara was charged by the new government with purging the Batista army and consolidating victory by exacting "revolutionary justice" against those regarded as traitors, chivatos (informants), or war criminals. As commander of La Cabaña, Guevara reviewed the appeals of those convicted during the revolutionary tribunal process.

First agrarian reform

The first reform law was implemented in May 17, 1959, which eliminated latifundios—large scale private ownerships, and granted ownership and titles to workers who previously worked on those lands, and paying rent for land was abolished. The law the regulated the size of farms to and real estate to . Any holdings over these limits were expropriated by the government and either redistributed to peasants in parcels or held as state-run communes.Kellner 1989, p. 57.

Four days after the announcement of the law, the owners of the 34 major American sugar mills went to the U.S. embassy to voice their frustrations. On June 3, 1959, the law went into effect. On June 11, the U.S. government issues an official statement of protest, claiming that compensation is too low. Compensation was based on tax estimates from 30 to 40 years ago, thus making estimated values below contemporary values.

On the anniversary of the 26th of July, the Cuban government invited peasants who had received new land titles to visit Havana. Half a million visiting peasants were housed in either private homes or in the gala hall of the Presidential Palace.