American Horse (; also known as American Horse the Younger; c. 1840 – December 16, 1908) was an Oglala Lakota chief, statesman, educator and historian. American Horse is notable in American history as a U.S. Army Indian Scout and a progressive Oglala Lakota leader who promoted friendly associations with whites and education for his people. American Horse opposed Crazy Horse during the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877 and the Ghost Dance Movement of 1890, and was a Lakota delegate to Washington. American Horse was one of the first Wild Westers with Buffalo Bill's Wild West and a supporter of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. His record as a councilor of his people and his policy in the new situation that confronted them was consistent, and he was known for his eloquence.
Early life
American Horse was first known as Manishnee (Cannot Walk, or Played Out) and his nickname was Spider. When he was born, his old grandfather said: 'Put him out in the sun! Let him ask his great-grandfather, the Sun, for the warm blood of a warrior!' And he had warm blood." His father Sitting-Bear, the leader of the True Oglalas, was killed in battle while he was still very young and he was raised by an uncle. As a youth, American Horse participated in war parties against the Crow and Shoshones.Hardorff, Richard G. (1998) The Death of Crazy Horse: A Tragic Episode in Lakota History. Arthur H Clark. p. 66.
American Horse was ten years old when he was attacked by three Crow warriors, while driving a herd of ponies to water. Here he displayed native cunning and initiative. It seemed he had scarcely a chance to escape, for the enemy was near. He yelled frantically at the ponies to start them toward home, while he dropped off into a thicket of willows and hid there. A part of the herd was caught in sight of the camp and there was a counter chase, but the Crows got away with the ponies. Of course, his mother was frantic, believing her boy had been killed or captured. But after the excitement was over, he appeared in camp unhurt. When questioned about his escape, he remarked: "I knew they would not take the time to hunt for small game when there was so much bigger close by."Eastman, pp. 166–167.
One day a small party of Shoshones was discovered near at hand. In the midst of the excitement and preparations for the attack, young American Horse caught sight of a close by, fat, black-tail deer. Unable to resist the temptation, he pulled an arrow from his quiver and sent it through the deer's heart. Then with several of his half-starved companions, sprang upon the yet quivering body of the animal to cut out the liver which was sometimes eaten raw. One of the men was allegedly knocked down by the last kick of the dying buck, but the warriors swallowed a few mouthfuls of liver before rushing upon and routing their enemies. It is still told of how American Horse killed game and feasted between the ambush and the attack.Eastman, pp. 168–169.
U.S. Army Indian Scout In the early 1870s, American Horse moved to the Red Cloud Agency. He allied himself with the Wagluhe people at Fort Robinson and became a son-in-law to Chief Red Cloud. American Horse soon enlisted as a U.S. Army Indian Scout, and the military made much use of him keeping the young braves quiet and recruiting new scouts.Eastman, p. 173Hyde, p. 38.
Killing of Sioux Jim On August 31, 1876, about a month after the Battle of the Little Big Horn, American Horse shot and killed Sioux Jim. Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie, who had just arrived at Camp Robinson, received word that Sioux Jim was in the Wagluhe or Loafer village, led by Chief Blue Horse. Early that morning, Major Gordan led four companies of cavalry to the village, said to number about 50 lodges near the agency, to arrest Sioux Jim. Sioux Jim could not be found, but Gordan did capture Sioux Jim's wife and one of his sons, and they were taken back to Camp Robinson and placed in the guardhouse. Chief Blue Horse was arrested for a short time for not following Mackenzie's order to report northern "hostile" Indians slipping into his Waghule village. "Shortly after the troops left, Sioux Jim came back to the village where American Horse attempted to arrest him. In the process, American Horse shot and killed Sioux Jim. The date of Sioux Jim's death is from Mackenzie's reports to General Crook and General Sheridan, both dated Sept. 2, 1876."Ostler, p. 44However, see Eastman, p. 165: "In the early part of the year 1876, there was a rumor that certain bands were in danger of breaking away. Their leader was one Sioux Jim, so nicknamed by the soldiers. American Horse went to him as peacemaker, but was told he was a woman and no brave. He returned to his own camp and told his men that Sioux Jim meant mischief, and in order to prevent another calamity to the tribe, he must be chastised. He again approached the warlike Jim with several warriors at his back. The recalcitrant came out, gun in hand, but the wily chief was too quick for him. He shot and wounded the rebel, whereupon one of his men came forward and killed him.
Adoption of the name American Horse
There are two Oglala Lakota chiefs named American Horse notable in American history. Historian George E. Hyde distinguished them by referring to "Chief American Horse the Elder" as the son of Old Chief Smoke and the cousin of Red Cloud, and "Chief American Horse the Younger" as the son of Sitting Bear, and son-in-law to Red Cloud. Hyde, p. 18.
Chief American Horse the Elder (Wašíčuŋ Tȟašúŋke; 1830 – September 9, 1876) is renowned as a great warrior for his leadership, Spartan courage and honor. American Horse the Elder is notable in American history as one of the principal war chiefs allied with Crazy Horse during Red Cloud's War and the Battle of the Little Bighorn during the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877. Chief American Horse the Elder was a son of Old Chief Smoke, an Oglala Lakota head chief and one of the last great Shirt Wearers, "Ogle Tanka Un", a highly prestigious Lakota "chief warrior" society. He was a signatory to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, along with Chief Red Cloud and Chief Blue Horse, his brothers. A month or so after the Treaty of 1868, American Horse the Elder was chosen as a Shirt Wearer along with Crazy Horse, Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses and Man That Owns a Sword. On September 9, 1876, American Horse the Elder was mortally wounded in the Battle of Slim Buttes fighting to protect his family and defending against the white invasion of the "Paha Sapa" Black Hills.A month or so after the Treaty of 1868, four "chief warriors", or "shirt-wearers" were chosen, Crazy Horse, American Horse, Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses and Man That Owns a Sword. Kadlecek, Edward and Kadlecek, Mabell (1981) To Kill an Eagle: Indian Views on the Last Days of Crazy Horse. Bower House. p. 14. Greene, Jerome A. (1982) Slim Buttes, 1876: An Episode of the Great Sioux War. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 13–14. Finerty, John Frederick (1890)War-path and bivouac: The Conquest of the Sioux. p. 255.
American Horse the Younger gained influence during the turbulence of the Great Sioux War of 1876–1877. After news of the death of Chief American Horse the Elder at the Battle of Slim Buttes, Manishnee (Can not walk, or Played out) seized an opportunity and assumed the name "American Horse."Eastman, p. 166: "American Horse liked notoriety and excitement and always seized an opportunity to leap into the center of the arena." American Horse the Younger was not related to American Horse the Elder, son of Old Chief Smoke. He was the son of Sitting Bear, leader of the True Oglalas, a band of Oglala opposed to the Smoke peopleEastman, p. 173. In 1890, American Horse the Younger told Charles A. Eastman that he succeeded to the name and position of his uncle American Horse the Elder who was killed at Sim Buttes in 1876. Later, American Horse the Younger claimed that American Horse the Elder was not killed at Slim Buttes, but rather a minor chief Iron Plume or Iron Shield. He also claimed that he personally killed Captain William J. Fetterman with his war club in the Fetterman Fight during Red Cloud's War. As a result, the identities and accounts of American Horse the Elder and the American Horse the Younger have been blended by some historians. Like his great friend Crazy Horse, there are no known photographs or drawings of Chief American Horse the Elder.Hyde, p. 318.
Murder of Crazy Horse
On May 6, 1877, Crazy Horse surrendered at Fort Robinson. For the next four months, Crazy Horse resided in his village near the Red Cloud Agency. American Horse and other Oglala leaders believed that Crazy Horse was a threat to order, and he made it fairly plain that he hated the whites and he intended to attempt to return to his old wild life in the north at the first opportunity.Hyde, p. 295. Worried that further resistance would compromise peace negotiations to be held in Washington, D.C., Oglala leaders discussed how to "quiet" Crazy Horse and "bring him into a better state of feeling." But Crazy Horse refused to meet with them. Rumors of Crazy Horse's desire to slip away and return to the old ways of life started to spread at the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies. Hearing that affairs at Red Cloud were nearing a crisis, Gen. Crook hurried to Fort Robinson. Crook believed that a personal interview with Crazy Horse would smooth the situation, and started for Crazy Horse's camp. However, he was stopped by Woman's Dress who bore a message from the agency chiefs warning Crook that Crazy Horse had stated his intention to kill him in the coming council if the general did not meet his demands. Crook was convinced that Crazy Horse meant what he said, and returned to Camp Robinson sending out a message for the chiefs to come there for the council. Crazy Horse ignored the summons. The chiefs told Gen. Crook that they did not approve of Crazy Horse's conduct and were ready to follow the general's lead. He told them they should prove their loyalty by arresting Crazy Horse. They then consulted and informed Crook that they were willing to act, but that Crazy Horse was a desperate man and some thought it would be better to kill him. Crook demurred, and said it would be murder. An agreement was finally reached whereby American Horse, Red Cloud, Little Wound, They Even Fear His Horses agreed to march with the soldiers with orders to arrest Crazy Horse.
On the morning of September 4, 1877, eight companies of the Third Cavalry and four hundred friendly Indians moved against Crazy Horse's village, only to find that it had scattered during the night. Crazy Horse had almost escaped alone, but soon turned to the nearby Spotted Tail Agency with his sick wife where he was arrested by agency Indians. On the morning of September 5, 1877, Crazy Horse and Lieutenant Jesse M. Lee, the Indian agent at Spotted Tail, departed for Fort Robinson. Arriving that evening, Lieutenant Lee was informed that he was to turn Crazy Horse over to Captain James Kennington, who accompanied Crazy Horse to the post guardhouse. Once inside, Crazy Horse struggled with the guard and Little Big Man and attempted to escape. Just outside the door, Crazy Horse was stabbed with a bayonet by one of the members of the guard. He was taken to the adjutant's office, where he was tended by the assistant post surgeon at the post, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, and died late that night.Hyde, pp. 296–298Ostler, pp. 102–103Buecker, Thomas R. (1999) Fort Robinson and the American West, 1874–1899. Nebraska State Historical. p. 113. Clark, Robert A. (1976) The Killing of Crazy Horse. A.H. Clark. p. 33.
The Wagluhe