Khazar protectorate was an episode in the history of Byzantine Chersonesus (then Cherson). During the early 8th century, the city was part of the Khazar Khaganate for several years. The protectorate was established at the request of the citizens and local authorities. They feared repressions after a palace coup occurred in Constantinople in 705. This coup returned Emperor Justinian II to power who was very hostile to the inhabitants of Crimea.
A tudun appointed by the Khazar khagan appeared in the city, but local self-government was preserved. Sources do not specify exactly when and how this happened. It is only known that the military forces deployed by the Khazars were small. The relations between Byzantium and Khazaria initially remained peaceful. In 710 and 711, Justinian sent three punitive expeditions against Cherson. The first expedition returned control of the city to the emperor and captured the Khazar official. The other two expeditions, according to Byzantine chroniclers, were sent to completely destroy Cherson, Bosporus, and the rest of the Crimean cities. The inhabitants learned of the impending danger and also asked the Khazars for protection. Military actions stopped when the Khazar army approached. After this, the Khazars intervened in Byzantine politics and played a decisive role in establishing a new emperor.
Background
At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Cherson (as Chersonesus was called since the 4th century AD) was a distant provincial city of the Byzantine Empire. It lost a large part of its former ancient prosperity. However, it continued to be a major urban center and the main Byzantine outpost in Crimea. Strong fortress walls and a favorable coastal location saved it from barbarian invasions. During the entire Migration Period, various tribes invaded Crimea. These included Goths, Huns, Turkuts, Onogurs, Khazars, and later Hungarians and Pechenegs. Cherson was never conquered. Sometimes, however, its inhabitants felt more like prisoners than citizens, as one source stated. Periods of sharp conflict were the exception. Normally, relations between Chersonites and the barbarian periphery were peaceful. The nomads neighboring the city always needed local craft products and Byzantine luxury goods, while the city residents needed agricultural goods. Other areas with a Christianized Byzantine population existed in Southwestern Crimea and the Kerch Peninsula. These included the port cities of Bosporus and Sugdaea, and the archontates or climates of in the mountains. They had political and church ties with both Cherson and the imperial administration. However, the direct power of the barbarians was always felt much stronger here, and the proportion of the incoming population was much larger.
The Byzantine Empire first came into close contact with the Khazars during its war against Sasanian Iran in 626–630 AD. The Khazars then provided the Byzantines with valuable military assistance. Together, they defeated Iran and conquered Transcaucasia. In the middle of the 7th century, the Khazar Khaganate finally separated from the Western Turkic Khaganate and became an independent state. The Khazar-Byzantine rapprochement became even more urgent. Instead of Iran, their new common enemy was the newly emerged Arab Caliphate (centered in Syria with its capital in Damascus from 661). The Khazars did not share borders with Byzantine possessions until the 660s. Then they defeated the Bulgars and established themselves in the steppes of the Sea of Azov and the Northern Black Sea region. This opened the way for their expansion into Crimea. These events are the earliest reliable reports in written sources about the presence of Khazars on the peninsula.
In 695, Emperor Justinian II was overthrown in Byzantium after ruling for 10 years. He came to power at the age of 16. He proved to be energetic but extremely domineering, quick-tempered, cruel, and ruthless to real and imaginary enemies. The population was extremely irritated by the new taxes he introduced that were levied not only on ordinary residents but also on the nobility. The unlawful methods used to collect these taxes also caused anger.
The reason for the uprising was a rumor. It said that Justinian was going to organize a night massacre of the people in Constantinople and punish the patriarch. The coup was led by the military commander Leontios. Justinian had imprisoned Leontios for three years because of the lost Battle of Sebastopolis.
Leontios arrested Justinian with the support of the patriarch. The next morning, he brought the overthrown emperor to the hippodrome in front of the crowd and, despite calls for reprisals, generously spared him. Still, Justinian's tongue and nose were cut off. Because of this, he received the nickname Rhinotmetos, meaning noseless. He was then sent into exile to Cherson.
Leontios was a protégé of the city aristocracy. He did not stay on the imperial throne for long, and his short reign was filled with a feverish struggle against external enemies. Two years later (697), the Arabs captured Byzantine Africa. They set up their own commanders from their own army there. A naval expedition was sent against the Arabs the next year. It initially acted successfully, but eventually had to retreat. Fearing punishment, the expedition mutinied. The troops marched on the capital and proclaimed the military commander Apsimar as the new emperor. Apsimar also cut off Leontios' nose and imprisoned him. Apsimar himself began to rule under the name Tiberios III.
Plot against Justinian The events began around 704. Upon learning of the overthrow of Leontios, Justinian began to openly declare his intention to return to power. He frequently gave speeches to the people. The residents of Cherson did not like this perspective. They feared the anger of the imperial authorities. They reported what was happening to Constantinople and planned to either kill Justinian or send him bound to the capital. Justinian fled the city and hid in the mountain fortress of Doros (presumably modern Mangup) in Gothia. While there, he sought a meeting with the khagan of Khazaria, Busir Glavan. The meeting took place. The khagan received the ex-emperor with honor, became his friend, and gave him his sister in marriage. The Khazar name of the princess is unknown. At baptism, she was named Theodora in honor of the famous wife of the imperial namesake, Justinian I.
With the khagan's permission, Justinian crossed the Strait of Kerch and settled in Phanagoria. Two high-ranking officials were constantly with him here: the personal representative of the khagan Papatzys (possibly the governor of Phanagoria) and the ruler of Bosporus . When Tiberios learned of the incident, he sent his own embassy to Busir Glavan or even a series of embassies. Promising a generous reward, he persuaded the khagan to hand over Justinian or, at the very least, just send his head. The khagan likely concluded that the request made sense. He sent a guard to Justinian under the pretext of protection from conspiracies, but in reality for an actual arrest. He ordered Papatzys and Balgitz to be ready to kill the ex-emperor at the first order. However, the conspiracy became known to Theodora through a servant of the khagan, and she told her husband everything. The true attitude of the khagan towards the emperor is not clear from the picture drawn by the sources. Theophanes the Confessor and Nikephoros I of Constantinople present the matter as if Justinian was really going to be killed. However, some further details in their story suggest that the relations between the two rulers remained friendly. From another source, it is known that the khagan visited Constantinople after Justinian's triumphal accession and received a generous tribute. It is possible, as suggested, that the khagan only formally sought to fulfill the promise given to Tiberios, and having specially arranged the escape, waited for further development of events. Justinian was warned in time and took energetic measures for his salvation. He invited Papatzys for a private conversation and strangled him with a string. He then killed Balgitz in the same way. After that, he sent his wife back to her brother in Khazaria. This can be equally interpreted as a gesture of an insulted person and as a concern for her safety. He secretly fled from Phanagoria himself. On a fishing boat, he reached the harbor of Symbolon (Balaklava) near Cherson. There, he secretly contacted a small group of supporters he had in the city. Together with them, he sailed on a ship to the mouth of the Danube. From there, he turned for alliance and help to the ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire, Khan Tervel. He promised him many benefits and the hand of his daughter. Tervel readily responded to the proposal. At the head of his army, together with Justinian, he went to Constantinople. After standing under the city walls for three days, Justinian entered the city at night through an underground water pipe with a small detachment. Justinian executed both of his predecessors, Tiberios and Leontios. He dragged them around the hippodrome and trampled them. He generously rewarded the Bulgars, who had pitched their tents right at the Palace of Blachernae. Tervel was endowed with the title of caesar. This was the next title in importance after the imperial one. It became the first case in the history of Byzantium when a foreigner was awarded such a position. Justinian gave him imperial clothes, seated him next to himself on the throne, and ordered the people to pay the same honors as to himself. The second of the promises given to Tervel probably remained unfulfilled. Not a single source mentions his marriage to Justinian's daughter.
Having executed all his enemies, Justinian sent a large military fleet to Khazaria to return his wife. The fleet got caught in a storm on the way and partially sank. Justinian may have doubted that the khagan would give up his sister voluntarily. However, the khagan did not put up any obstacles and politely told the emperor:
In 706, Theodora and her son, named Tiberius, were safely delivered to Constantinople. Justinian awarded them the titles of augustus and augusta and officially crowned them as his co-rulers. Probably then or somewhat later, the khagan himself visited the capital. His honoring took place in the golden-domed Basilica, behind the Milion (presumably, this is the Basilica Cistern). Statues of Justinian and Theodora were also erected there. Justinian was depicted kneeling.
Arrival of the Khazars in Cherson
At some point between Justinian's flight and the arrival of the first Byzantine expedition in the city in 710 or 711, a Khazar administration appeared in Cherson. The sources do not provide any details regarding the time and specific circumstances. It is only clear that it was not yet there when Justinian lived in the city, otherwise he would not have had to specially seek contact with the Khazars. Nothing is reported about the presence of any Khazar army in the city. Theophanes and Nikephoros simply state that, along with the s (members of the city council from the most noble and wealthy citizens) and the (the head of the city, elected from among the proteuons), the authorities included a tudun, who was there "on behalf of the khagan".