The foreign relations of Manchukuo were the international relations of Manchukuo, a Japanese puppet state in China that existed from 1932 to 1945. After its founding on 1 March 1932, Manchukuo was initially recognized by Japan and El Salvador. In January 1933, the United States notified the world not to recognize Manchukuo. In February 1933, the League of Nations passed a resolution affirming China's sovereignty over Northeast China and denying the legitimacy of Manchukuo. In 1934, the United Kingdom stated that it would never recognize Manchukuo. With the establishment of the Axis powers and Manchukuo's accession to the Anti-Comintern Pact, Manchukuo was gradually recognized by its member states. By 1943, Manchukuo had been recognized by 22 countries.
History On 1 March 1932, following the Japanese invasion of Manchuria that followed the Japanese-staged Mukden incident, the Northeast Supreme Administrative Council issued the Declaration of National Founding and formally established Manchukuo, with its capital in Changchun (later renamed Xinjing). Its territory included the entire present-day Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces, as well as eastern Inner Mongolia and Chengde, Hebei. Subsequently, Xie Jieshi, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Manchukuo, sent a notice to 17 countries including Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union, hoping to establish diplomatic relations.
The League of Nations dispatched the Lytton Commission to investigate the situation in December of that year. The pretext for the Japanese invasion was an alleged bombing by Chinese soldiers of a railway controlled by Japan at Liutiaogou in Manchuria, despite widespread knowledge that the Japanese army had orchestrated it. This event, referred to as the 'Manchurian Incident,' resulted in the establishment of the state of Manchukuo under Japanese control. While there was much doubt over the truth of the Incident, including from the members of the Lytton Commission, it was not until after the Tokyo War Crimes Trials that documents revealed that the Manchurian Incident was fabricated by Japanese military officers.Ferrell, Robert H. 1955. ‘The Mukden Incident: 18–19 September 1931’. The Journal of Modern History 27(1): 69. Manchukuo was merely a puppet state of Japan; and Japan's actions constituted unjustified aggression.
In May 1932, at the "Polish Inn," members of a special commission of the League of Nations met with representatives of the Polish diaspora in Harbin. The Poles informed the diplomats that the Japanese actions were inconsistent with international law, and their testimony proved to be crucial in the matter, influencing the creation of the Lytton Report and the commission's decision not to recognize Manchukuo and condemn the Japanese aggression.Joe Monster - Kiedyś mówiono o nim "polskie miasto w Chinach" - historia Harbina i rodaków je zamieszkujących - Artykuł z 16 listopada 2019 In 1933, Poland, along with other League of Nations member states, officially condemned Japan's actions in Manchuria, confirming that the region should be under Chinese sovereignty.Konflikty.pl - Paweł Łyziński - "Stosunki polsko-japońskie w latach 1918–1939" 24 July 2012 Poland, wanting to maintain good relations with China and the League of Nations, refused to recognize ManchukuoJACAR Newsletter Number 29, June 28, 2019 - Manchukuo’s International Relations: Missions from Countries that Did Not Recognize Manchukuo, but at the same time tried to maintain the Polish consulate in Harbin, which existed long before the Japanese occupation, to help Poles who experienced repression from the Japanese and the local authorities of Manchukuo.Chińskie Radio Międzynarodowe - "„Miasto lodu – Harbin pod okupacją japońską w oczach świadków” After the Japanese invasion, the situation of Poles in Manchuria deteriorated rapidly. The Japanese-controlled local authorities confiscated Polish property and concessions, and also dismissed Poles from their jobs within the structures of the Chinese Eastern Railway, regarding it as a form of punishment for not recognizing Manchukuo. Kazimierz Grochowski, one of the wealthiest Poles in Harbin, was stripped of his assets and concessions by the Japanese occupiers, who told him they had done so because "Poland does not appreciate the importance of Manchukuo".“In Mr. Grochowski’s opinion, the real reason for the expropriation of his property by the Japanese authorities is the Japanese claim that Poland fails to appreciate the significance of Manchukuo” – Warsaw, February 19, 1937 – AAN, MSZ, 6238 A similar fate befell many other Poles living under Japanese occupation. This provided a convenient pretext for confiscating Polish interests in Harbin. The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs was powerless in this matter; meanwhile, the Polish consulate was deprived of the right to intervene in cases concerning the protection of Polish citizens, negotiations regarding the restoration of concessions or the payment of compensation were ignored, and the property rights of Poles were challenged.AAN, MSZ, sygn. 6238, Notatka urzędnika Wydziału Wschodniego MSZ o Mandżukuo z 19 II 1937 r. Moreover, from the Warsaw Monitor, the official journal of the Republic of Poland, dated December 14, 1938, in which competent and authorized officials of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that "the exchange of correspondence between Poland and “Manchukuo” does not mean formal recognition of “Manchukuo” by Poland, but constitutes a practical solution to a problem arising from the presence of numerous Polish citizens in Manchuria.”.Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1938, The Far East, Volume III - The Ambassador in Poland (Biddle) to the Secretary of State - No. 846 - Warsaw, 14 December 1938 Information conveyed to Alfred Poniński, Poland’s ambassador to China, also indicates that the Polish note concerned solely the resolution of the difficult situation facing the Polish consulate and Polish citizens in Harbin; it was neither ratified nor published by the Polish government in the Journal of Laws, as it did not constitute a binding, full-fledged international treaty, and its content included neither a declaration of state recognition nor provisions regarding the establishment of diplomatic relations. At the same time, the Republic of Poland and the Republic of China maintained uninterrupted official diplomatic relations, as well as other Polish-Chinese institutions.The Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum (London) - Archives References: A.11.E/190 - Message to Mr. Alfred Poniński, Polish Ambassador in Chongqing - London, 10 December 1943. In 1941, the Japanese government finally decided to close the Polish consulate. This decision was hastened by Poland’s declaration of war on the Empire of Japan.Sejm Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej - Dz.U. 1941 nr 8 poz. 28 - Postanowienie Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej z dnia 11 grudnia 1941 r. o stanie wojny z Japonią Dzieje.pl - Portal Historyczny - "Polonia w paszczy mandżurskiego tygrysa" Publikacja 23.10.2024dr hab. Janusz Wróbel „W ogniu wojennym i rewolucji. Polacy w Chinach 1898–1949".Paweł Łyziński - "Stosunki polsko-japońskie w latach 1918–1939"
Great Britain and other countries were in a similar situation. D.G. Somerville asked the Foreign Secretary: "Have British consular representatives been appointed to the Government of Manchukuo and does he envisage full recognition of this regime?" J. Simson replied that "British consular representatives are still stationed, as they have been for many years, in Harbin, Mukden and Newchwang. During the last two and a half years they have maintained with the appropriate local authorities such relations as they consider essential to British interests. In these relations the question of recognition by His Majesty's Government of the existing regime in Manchuria has not been raised. As to the second part of the question, the situation is still governed by the resolution adopted by the Assembly of the League of Nations on February 24, 1933, in which the members of the League pledged themselves not to recognize the existing regime in Manchukuo".UK Parliament - Manchukuo Volume 285: debated on Wednesday 31 January 1934 In turn, Captain Dower asked the Secretary of the Department of International Trade whether he would consider the possibility of appointing a Trade Commissioner, given that three British consular representatives were still stationed in Manchukuo, although the country was not officially recognised, so as not to miss any opportunity to maintain and develop trade relations until further developments.UK Parliament - Manchuria (British Trade Interests) Volume 285: debated on Monday 5 February 1934 The British view was that "Manchukuo," while "de jure" belonging to China, was "de facto" dependent on Japan. In practice, this meant that British consulates in Manchuria operated under the supervision of two embassies, while in Tokyo, the British conducted important diplomatic talks with the government of the occupying power.Cambridge Unversity Press - The History of Manchuria, 1840-1948 - Chapter 10 - 1938–1948
On 14 June 1932, the House of Representatives of Japan passed a resolution to recognize Manchukuo. On 6 September, the Cabinet of Japan also passed a resolution to recognize Manchukuo. On 23 September of the same year, the Soviet Union agreed that Manchukuo would send consular officials to cities such as Moscow and Novosibirsk. On 15 January 1933, the United States notified the world not to recognize Manchukuo. In February 1933, the League of Nations passed a resolution with 44 votes in favor, 1 abstention, and 1 vote against, officially endorsing the Lytton Report, affirming China's sovereignty over Northeast China and not recognizing the legitimacy of Manchukuo. Japan responded by withdrawing from the international organization. The Manchukuo case persuaded the United States to articulate the Stimson Doctrine, under which international recognition was withheld from changes in the international system created by the force of arms.
After the establishment of the Axis powers in 1937, Germany and Italy recognized Manchukuo. In 1939, Manchukuo joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, and its member states successively announced their recognition of Manchukuo.
Diplomatic recognition