The Venda kingdom or Singo state was a Venda state located in the Soutpansberg mountain range and ruled by the Singo clan (also called "Vhasenzi").
In the centuries following the collapse of Mapungubwe c. 1300, interactions between Sotho-speakers, early Shona-speakers, and latecomer Shona-speakers in the Soutpansberg led to the formation of the Venda language (Tshivenda) and identity. In the late-17th century, dynastic members of the Rozvi Empire migrated south across the Limpopo River with their followers; collectively they were the Singo ("clan"). The Singo settled Dzata in Soutpansberg, and conquered the surrounding Nzhelele Valley. In Singo tradition, Thohoyandou is credited with expanding the state, and the Singo came to subdue all of Soutpansberg.
Over the course of the 18th century, trade routes shifted south, and around 1780 the state collapsed. The most powerful dynasties that remained were the Ramabulana Singo in western Soutpansberg, and the Tshivhase Singo and Mphaphuli Singo in eastern Soutpansberg. Throughout the 19th century, Venda rulers such as Makhado fended off Boer attempts at gaining hegemony and land to settle, until an invasion in 1898 forced Ramabulana leader Mphephu to flee. A year later, the British invaded and conquered the Boers to establish the Transvaal Colony, after which Mphephu returned. Transvaal was incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910.
In 1979 Ramabulana leader Patrick Mphephu was made President of the new Venda bantustan and (king) of all Venda, and his authoritarian rule contributed towards enforcing 'grand apartheid'. He died in 1988 and after a coup in 1990 the Venda kingship was abolished, while the bantustan was reincorporated into South Africa following the end of apartheid in 1994. In 2010 the South African government recognised the Ramabulana leader as of all Venda, though a leader dispute ensued between incumbent Toni Mphephu and Masindi Mpephu, which is yet to be resolved as of 2025.
Geography
The Soutpansberg is a mountain range in northeastern modern-day South Africa (near the border with Zimbabwe) that runs west to east, with mountains reaching in the west and in the far-east. Close to the Soutpansberg in the north is the Limpopo River, and it is bordered by the Blouberg mountain range in the west, the Pietersburg Plateau in the south, and the Levubu River in the east. The area north of the Soutpansberg has a semi-arid climate, while the area south experiences more rainfall.
History
Background The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was a Shona (specifically Kalanga) state, located north of the Soutpansberg mountain range and south of the Limpopo River, that flourished during the 13th century. Mapungubwe collapsed and its population dispersed, with some settling just north of the Soutpansberg. South of the Soutpansberg were Sotho-speaking people, a distinct group that was isolated from those in north.
The pre-Singo (totem-affiliated clans; ) in the Soutpansberg are collectively called by the Singo; it is unclear which ones came from the north or south. The earliest people in western Soutpansberg () were supposedly a chiefdom led by Luvhalane and another chiefdom near . In central Soutpansberg (), according to tradition, there were groups at and Luonde mountains. To the east in the central Mutale Valley () there were the Dzivhani. are remembered in the southeast around the Levubu River (), though not in the northeast () which was inhabited by the Nyai.
In the early-15th century elite stone-walled settlements related to the Kingdom of Butua appeared northwest of Soutpansberg, and new Shona dynasties arrived in Soutpansberg. A Shona dynasty from one such settlement, the Tshivhula centred in Machemma, came to dominate Luvhalane's chiefdom and controlled , while a Sotho-speaking (Dau) settled just south of central Soutpansberg. The Kwevho, who had connections to both Shona- and Sotho-speaking groups, replaced the groups in central Soutpansberg. The Mbedzi claim to have migrated from Malungudze Hill in southern modern-day Zimbabwe to conquer the Dzivhani, and settled Makoleni sometime between the 15th and 16th centuries, with tradition holding their first ruler as the renowned rainmaker Luvhimbi. Following this, the Dzivhani changed their practice of burying rulers at Tshilavhulu Mountain to burying religious figures in river pools. Close interactions between the Sotho- and Shona-speaking groups over the following centuries led to the formation of a common language, Tshivenda, which, as Kalanga practices such as (initiation school) incorporated Sotho-speakers, saw the formation of a Venda identity.
Singo conquest, apogee, and collapse Further north in modern-day Zimbabwe around 1683, Changamire Dombo of the Rozvi Empire conquered the Kingdom of Butua. Jannie Loubser concludes that archaeological and historical evidence indicates that the Singo were dynastic Rozvi and left the empire between 1680 and 1700, with oral traditions mentioning "political dissension". Some Singo traditions say their first ruler originated from "Matangoni Mountain" near some lakes, which is thought to have been close to the Rozvi capital of Dhlo Dhlo. Following Changamire's death in 1696, a succession dispute ensued between three of his sons. Thomas Huffman writes that, after losing, one of these sons migrated south across the Limpopo with his followers; together they comprised the Singo . The Singo were accompanied on their migration by the Lovedu and (Shona-speaking Muslims who had lost the 1644 Butua civil war; they later became the Lemba). The Singo settled Dzata in Soutpansberg in the late-17th century. While early informants said that Dzata in Nzhelele Valley, also called "Dzata Mikondeni", was the first Singo settlement, later informants say it was another ruins also called Dzata or "Dzata Tshiendeulu" on Tshiendeulu Mountain above the valley, which was later abandoned for Dzata Mikondeni. Radio-carbon dating at Dzata Tshiendeulu dates it to the 15th and 16th centuries, and archaeologist Edwin Hanisch writes that it was likely occupied by earlier Shona settlers, namely the Netshiendeulu, rather than the Singo.
Singo traditions vary greatly. Loubser writes that there is evidence of Singo tradition combining rulers' reigns into one (a practice known as "telescoping"), assisted by successors being given previous rulers' names as praise names. Venda tradition holds that the first Singo ruler was Dambanyika (also called "Vele Lambeu" or "Dyambeu", based on the Rozvi title which was likely another name for Dombo). David Beach says that from Dzata, Dambanyika conquered the Nzhelele Valley. Traditions say that the Singo were empowered by a magical and sacred drum called (carried by the Lemba), and that with one beat of the drum Mwari killed all resistance. Dynasties like the Luvhimbi were given ritual authority due to the Singo fearing rain would cease if they were dismantled. Netshiendeulu tradition says that their chief was an uncle of Dambanyika, and that he showed Dambanyika around and told him to respect Tshiendeulu Mountain and only visit or hunt there with his permission. In Singo tradition Dambanyika is said to have been a keen hunter, who was often accompanied by his dogs. Accordingly one of his dogs chased a rabbit into a cave at Tshiendeulu and Dambanyika followed. A boulder fell and blocked the entrance, and his other dogs waited outside. Netshiendeulu tradition says that this was because Dambanyika did not have permission. In Singo tradition it is said that after a long search, Dambanyika's son Phophi found the cave guarded by the dogs, and Dambanyika told him that he was content with resting there. Some versions say Phophi was led there by Dambanyika's favourite dog (a female). Phophi then ascended to the kingship, taking the title of (derived from , a Shona praise name for Mwari meaning "head of the elephant"). Thohoyandou is credited with expanding the state, and the Singo came to subjugate the many dynasties of Soutpansberg (analysis of Dau tradition dates this to c. 1700).
The Singo elite dominated trade which exported to Sofala and Inhambane, and with help from allied they controlled the production of high-status goods such as copper, ivory, gold, and cattle (though not subsistence goods). Jannie Loubser writes that the Singo state lacked hegemonic control, and that polities far from the core generally chose to take their prestige goods to the Singo, who then exported them to the coast. One ally was the Ndalamo . In Venda culture, cross-cousin marriage was conventional, and made eldest sisters influential. The Singo dynasty intermarried with the Ndalamo dynasty such that the Ndalamo became the Singo ruler's 'father's sister's people' and vice versa, giving the fathers' eldest sisters () ritual authority and the ability to choose kingship successors from among princes. Tradition says that while the eldest sister of the Ndalamo chief was fomenting a succession dispute between two Singo brothers, she took the drum from the Lemba (who were close allies of the Singo). Some traditions say that it was around this time that the Singo adopted the Venda language.
From the early 18th century, the Dutch and British began trading at Maputo Bay, and trade routes gradually shifted south and west from the Singo in Soutpansberg to Sotho and Ndebele polities. Over time the Singo lost control of trade, contributing to the state's collapse and fragmentation. Dzata was abandoned sometime between 1750 and 1800; Hanisch suggests the 1750s. Dzata bears evidence of a large fire, with many burnt structures. Loubser writes that after the death of Thohoyandou, there was a succession dispute between claimants, causing the state to fracture. Some traditions place several kings as having ruled before Dambanyika and Thohoyandou, and say that during a succession conflict between Thohoyandou and his brothers, the sacred drum, , touched the ground. This is said to have greatly angered Mwari who withdrew his engagement with Singo royalty; Thohoyandou lost in battle to his brothers, and disappeared into Lake Fundudzi. Hanisch proposes that (based on a tradition) Thohoyandou was a regent and successful ruler who refused to step down when the Singo heir became older, provoking rebellion. He continues that this forced Thohoyandou to flee, and that the rebels burnt down Dzata. One tradition recorded by E. Mudau held that Dimbanyika divided the realm between his sons Ravhura, Mandiwana, Munzhedzi (Mpofu), Tshivhase, and Thohoyandou, and made Thohoyandou king. Accordingly the other brothers opposed this and conflict followed.
The fragmented state: resistance and colonisation Following destructive civil war, the Singo elite split into three groups as part of a dispersal called . The Ramabulana Singo dynasty inhabited western Soutpansberg with allied Ndalamo. The Ravhura dynasty were the successors to the Singo of Dzata, though the kingship () was taken from them by the Ramabulana Singo and they fled east, where they were subsumed by the Tshivhase and Mphaphuli Singo dynasties. In the south were the Singo's former vassals. The Tshivhase dynasty also subjugated the Mbedzi Luvhimbi dynasty; the Luvhimbi ruler's sister became their leader and the Tshivhase's principal rainmaker. In decreasing order of prestige, Tshivhase rulers came to be buried at mountains, Mbedzi leaders at pools, and Dzivhani leaders on dry ground (, "dry ones"). During these times, Venda chiefs ( ; ) were largely autonomous. In the early-19th century the Venda were raided by groups fleeing the Mfecane (; "times of flight"), and several Venda groups moved to higher ground for greater security.