The borders of Acadia have changed repeatedly throughout its history. More often than not, they were ignored, poorly defined, or confused with other boundaries. Acadia officially ceased to exist as a political entity in 1763. Nevertheless, the Acadian people endured, and their territory continued to evolve, influencing—and still influencing—the definition of Acadia. This territory is partly associated with the Acadian diaspora. Some of Acadia’s former boundaries persist or have shaped modern borders, notably portions of the Canada–United States border. Uncertainties surrounding these historical borders continue to have consequences, including contributing to the Aroostook War.
Evolution of Acadia’s borders Origins Several Indigenous peoples successively occupied the territory that would become Acadia. The most recent before European contact were the Maliseet, Mi'kmaq, and Abenaki, whose cultures developed from the 6th century CE onward. Martins Point is generally regarded as the boundary between Maliseet and Mi'kmaq territory, while Lepreau Point marked the divide between the Maliseet and the Passamaquoddy. Portages connected these territories, and the peoples belonged to the Wabanaki Confederacy. In any case, these boundaries were fluid because the territories were not permanently occupied; the economy was based on hunting and fishing.
Indigenous boundaries had little or no impact on subsequent European borders. However, the distribution of Indigenous nations was frequently shown on maps, and tribal names were sometimes used in place of territorial ones.
Early European exploration The Vikings reached North America around the year 1000 and named three regions—Helluland, Markland, and Vinland—whose exact locations and extents remain unknown. In any event, none of their boundaries survived their departure.
Several largely unsubstantiated theories exist about early pre-Columbian exploration and settlement of Acadia, including voyages by the Irish saint Saint Brendan around 530, the Welsh prince Madog around 1170, Malians in the 12th–13th centuries, the Knights Templar in the 14th century, the Zeno brothers around 1390, and the Chinese admiral Zheng He in 1421. Phantom islands and imaginary places such as Drogeo and Norumbega are associated with these voyages. Norumbega appeared on maps until the early 17th century; its last mention came in 1613 when Pierre Biard wrote that the St. Croix River flowed through it.
In any case, Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in 1492. The papal bull Inter caetera (1493) granted Spain all lands west and south of a line 100 leagues () west of the Azores and Cape Verde. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) moved the line to 370 leagues () west of Cape Verde. In both cases, the future Acadia fell within the Spanish sphere, but the demarcation was ignored by other European powers, including Spain and Portugal, and soon fell into disuse.
Many explorers visited the region in the 15th and early 16th centuries, including John Cabot for England in 1497 and João Álvares Fagundes for Portugal around 1520. Fagundes explored and named several areas, including Newfoundland, present-day Nova Scotia, and Saint Pierre and Miquelon; he may have claimed them for Portugal, though this is unlikely. Early explorers initially mistook the land for Asia but soon realized they had found a new continent and sought a passage to Asia. Maps of the period often used flags to denote possession, but boundaries remained vague. Exploration did not necessarily confer legal possession but formed the basis for future claims. European fishermen were already familiar with the coasts.
French Acadia (1604–1713) French Acadia refers to the period from its founding in 1604 until its final conquest by Britain in 1713. It was not always called Acadia during this time, nor was it continuously under French sovereignty.
Official status within the Kingdom of France New France is sometimes considered to comprise only the Canada colony or to include Acadia as well. In practice, however, Acadia remained distinct, with its own governor. Orders were supposed to pass through the Governor General of New France, but the French court sometimes dealt directly with Acadia’s governor. Relations between Acadia and Canada were often tense, characteristic of two separate colonies; even Placentia (Plaisance) refused cooperation.
A spirit of independence animated both Acadia and Canada. The Abenaki lived around the Penobscot River, forming a buffer zone between Acadia and New England.
Recognition Spanish and Portuguese presence prevented England and France from colonizing south of the 30th parallel north. The English focused around the 37th parallel and the French around the 45th, though the French were slow to establish settlements.
The name “Acadia” was probably first used in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, exploring for France, to describe the Delmarva Peninsula; only in the 17th century did it refer to a region roughly corresponding to the modern Maritime provinces.
France sent Jacques Cartier in 1534 before formally claiming the territory. Humphrey Gilbert took possession of Newfoundland (northeast of Acadia) for England in 1583, based on Cabot’s voyage. The Colony of Virginia was chartered the same year without defined limits. France then considered Acadia to include the Gulf of St. Lawrence coast extending southwest to an undetermined boundary with Virginia.
In 1603, Henry IV of France, citing Verrazzano’s exploration, granted Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons a fur-trade monopoly and instructed him to found a colony between the 40th and 46th parallels—intended to run from Cape Cod to Cape Breton Island but actually bisecting the island. This ignored English explorations in Maine in 1602–1603. It was likely the first use of parallels as boundaries in Canadian history.
Early settlement attempts Aymar de Chaste received the New France trade monopoly in 1603 and sent François Gravé du Pont and Samuel de Champlain, but no settlement was founded.
Acadia was founded in 1604 by Pierre Dugua de Mons on Sainte-Croix Island, now in Maine near the northern shore of the Bay of Fundy. An earlier colony on Sable Island (1598–1603) had failed. Acadia became one of the first regions in North America to be accurately mapped, by Champlain in 1604. The Sainte-Croix settlement failed, and Port-Royal was established in 1605 on the southern shore of the Bay of Fundy.
Beginning of hostilities
From the outset, England coveted Acadia’s strategic position and repeatedly attacked it. Most English attacks aimed to push Acadia’s border eastward to the Kennebec River and then the Penobscot River. The French mainly tried to disrupt Boston. The French founded no permanent settlements west of the St. Croix River. Most attacks failed or were abandoned due to poor organization or weather. Governors frequently moved the capital and received little military or financial support, contributing to instability.
In 1606, the Virginia Company received a charter from James I for Virginia between the 34th and 45th parallels, ignoring Acadia’s boundaries. The English founded the short-lived Popham Colony in Maine in 1607. When the French settled Mount Desert Island in 1613, the English destroyed it and captured Port-Royal, basing their claim on Cabot’s voyage.
In 1620, James I replaced the Virginia Company with the Plymouth Council for New England, granting land from the Atlantic to the Pacific between the 40th and 48th parallels—encompassing Acadia and the nascent Canada colony. The modern 49th parallel border is coincidental.
Nova Scotia for the first time (1621–1632)
From 1613, Scotland claimed a colony called Nova Scotia, roughly covering French Acadia east of the St. Croix River and a line drawn due north. In 1621, James VI and I granted it to his favorite Sir William Alexander. Part of the present Canada–US border derives from this grant. It was the first North American territory delimited by precise, identifiable geographical features.
Later in 1621, the Plymouth Council granted Alexander the “territory of Sagadahock” between the St. Croix and Kennebec rivers. In 1622, John Mason and Ferdinando Gorges received land between the Kennebec and Merrimack, named the Province of Maine; it was split in 1629 into Maine and New Hampshire.
In 1627, the Company of One Hundred Associates received a monopoly over New France, defined as stretching from Newfoundland to the Great Lakes, the Arctic Circle to Florida—thus including Acadia and English possessions. War broke out that year between France and England. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1632) partially ended it and returned Acadia to France.
The Nova Scotia grant was reconfirmed in 1625 and 1633. The colony was divided into New Alexandria (north) and New Caledonia (south) across the Isthmus of Chignecto and Bay of Fundy—resembling modern New Brunswick and Nova Scotia without direct connection. Scottish settlers arrived in 1629 at Cape Breton and Port-Royal.
Meanwhile, Canada was briefly granted to Alexander in 1628; the grant lapsed after 1632. Charles de Saint-Étienne de La Tour received a baronetcy in 1630 from Cape Fourchu (near Yarmouth) to Mirliguèche (near Lunenburg), implying this was the sole “Acadia”.
British Acadia (1713–1763) British Acadia describes the region of Acadia under British control from 1713 to 1763.
Treaty of Utrecht and its interpretation (1713)
The British conquest of Acadia was formalized by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.The Most Christian King shall restore to the Queen of Great Britain, on the day of the exchange of the ratifications of this present Treaty of Peace, letters and authentic acts, which shall serve as evidence of the cession, in perpetuity, to the Queen and to the Crown of Great Britain, of the island of Saint Christopher, which shall henceforth be possessed alone by British subjects; of Nova Scotia, or Acadia, in its entirety, according to its ancient limits, as also of the town of Port Royal, now called Annapolis Royal; and generally of all that depends on the said lands and islands of the said country, with the sovereignty [...].
In practice, France retained Île Royale and Île Saint-Jean, along with other holdings such as Anticosti Island and fishing rights on the French Shore of Newfoundland.These latter two territories were not originally part of Acadia but became associated with it later. The French had held the colony of Placentia in Newfoundland since 1660. The treaty equated Acadia with Nova Scotia, despite France's longstanding claim that the colony extended to the Kennebec River or at least the Penobscot River. From the perspective of Massachusetts, the treaty restored the territory of Sagadahock and Nova Scotia, while Nova Scotia's new governor viewed the colony as encompassing all of former Acadia with its western boundary at the St. George River. Great Britain regarded Acadia (and thus Nova Scotia) as extending north to the St. Lawrence River. France, however, limited Acadia (and Nova Scotia) to the southern portion of the peninsula, arguing that it was not the pre-1710 Acadia but a different one "according to its ancient limits." These divergent views of Acadia were reflected in maps produced by both powers. The British did not immediately occupy the continental portion of the territory after the treaty's signing, implying continued French sovereignty there.
The French began claiming the continental portion around 1720. In 1751, they built Fort Beauséjour on the north bank of the Missaguash River, while the British constructed Fort Lawrence on the south bank, effectively recognizing the French position de facto; this marked the third time the Isthmus of Chignecto served as a boundary.
Despite boundary uncertainties, the English granted the township of Harrington along the Saint John River in 1732, though the grant was soon forgotten.