Proto-Kabardian (or Proto Eastern Circassian) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Kabardian dialects and the Besleney dialect. Together with its sister language, Proto-Adyghe, it is descended from Proto-Circassian.

Phonology Consonants The consonant system is reconstructed with a four-way phonation contrast in stops and affricates, and a two-way contrast in fricatives.

Proto-Eastern Besleney Dialectal Kabardian Modern Kabardian (written as ) Proto-Eastern Besleney Dialectal Kabardian Modern Kabardian

Evolution of Consonants Proto-Kabardian possessed a distinct series of stops and affricates. This inventory included palatalized velars and postalveolar affricates.

Postalveolar affricates:

Palatalized velars:

The evolution into Modern Standard Kabardian occurred in two distinct phases. The Besleney dialect was not affected by either Phase 1 or Phase 2, preserving the Proto-Kabardian forms. Some Kabardian dialects (like Uzunyayla) were affected by Phase 1 but not Phase 2. Standard Kabardian underwent both shifts.

Phase 1: Spirantization (Affricate to Fricative) In Phase 1, the original Proto-Kabardian affricate postalveolar consonants underwent spirantization, becoming fricatives in Standard Kabardian. Besleney retained the affricates.

The shifts were: → → →

The following table demonstrates specific examples of this spirantization. Note that Besleney retains the affricates found in Proto-Kabardian.

+ Phase 1 Examples: Spirantization Meaning Proto-Kabardian / Besleney(Affricate) Shift Type Standard Kabardian(Fricative) fox () → () village () → () village () → () night () → () cow () → () spear () → () goat () → () to come out from under () → () to regret () → () mustache () → () new () → () winter () → () young-man () → () guest () → () area () → () iron () → () to sleep () → () tree () → () to run () → () to run down () → () he-goat () → () door () → ()

Phase 2: Velar Palatalization Later on, after the original affricates had become fricatives in Phase 1, a gap was left in the postalveolar position. In the majority of Kabardian dialects (including Standard Kabardian), the historical velar consonants shifted forward to fill this gap. Besleney and some Kabardian dialects (like Uzunyayla) did not undergo this shift and retained the velars.

The shifts were: → → →

The following tables demonstrate how Besleney retains the velars, while Standard Kabardian shifts them to affricates.

1. Proto-Kabardian/Besleney → Standard Kabardian Meaning Besleney / Proto-Kabardian Standard KabardianCyrillicIPACyrillicIPA chicken гьэд ɡʲad джэд d͡ʒad cat гьэду ɡʲadəw джэду d͡ʒadəw shirt гьанэ ɡʲaːna джанэ dʒaːna to studyto read егьэн jaɡʲan еджэн jadʒan glass абгь ʔaːbgʲ абдж ʔaːbd͡ʒ game гьэгу ɡʲagʷ джэгу d͡ʒagʷ bitter дыгь dəɡʲ дыдж dəd͡ʒ sick сымагьэ səmaːɡʲa сымаджэ səmaːd͡ʒa evil бзагьэ bzaːɡʲa бзаджэ bzaːd͡ʒa valley къуэлагьэ qʷalaːɡʲa къуэладжэ qʷalaːd͡ʒa noon щэгьагъуэ ɕaɡʲaːʁʷa шэджагъуэ ʃad͡ʒaːʁʷa infidel гьаур ɡʲaːwər джаур d͡ʒaːwər girl хъыгьэбз χəɡʲabz хъыджэбз χəd͡ʒabz

2. Proto-Kabardian/Besleney → Standard Kabardian Meaning Besleney / Proto-Kabardian Standard KabardianCyrillicIPACyrillicIPA throat кьий kʲəj чий t͡ʃəj spleen кьэ kʲa чэ t͡ʃa to cough пскьэн pskʲan псчэн pst͡ʃan

3. Proto-Kabardian/Besleney → Standard Kabardian Meaning Besleney / Proto-Kabardian Standard KabardianCyrillicIPACyrillicIPA egg кӀьэнкӀьэ kʲʼankʲʼa кӀэнкӀэ t͡ʃʼant͡ʃʼa ceiling кӀьафэ kʲʼaːfa кӀафэ t͡ʃʼaːfa rope кӀьапсэ kʲʼaːpsa кӀапсэ t͡ʃʼaːpsa gun кӀьэрахъуэ kʲʼaraːχʷa кӀэрахъуэ t͡ʃʼaraːχʷa long кӀьыхь kʲʼəħ кӀыхь t͡ʃʼəħ to kill укӀьын  wkʲʼən укӀын  wt͡ʃʼən to move away ӀукӀьын ʔʷəkʲʼən ӀукӀын ʔʷət͡ʃʼən key ӀункӀьыбзэ ʔʷənkʲʼəbza ӀункӀыбз ʔʷənt͡ʃʼəbz beard жьакӀьэ ʑaːkʲʼa жьакӀэ ʑaːt͡ʃʼa poor тхьэмыщкӀь tħaməɕkʲʼ тхьэмыщкӀэ tħaməɕt͡ʃʼa to be ashamed укӀьытэн wəkʲʼətan укӀытэн wət͡ʃʼətan short кӀьакуэ kʲʼaːkʷa кӀагуэ t͡ʃʼaːɡʷa tail кӀьэ kʲʼa кӀэ t͡ʃʼa

Comparison of Phases The following table shows how words like "new" (affected by Phase 1) and "tail" (affected by Phase 2) are distinct in dialects. In Besleney (No phases), they remain and . In Standard Kabardian (Both phases), they became and .

Word ProtoKabardian Besleney(No Shift) Other Kabardian dialects(Phase 1 only) Modern Standard Kabardian(Phase 1 & 2) tail kʲʼa kʲʼa kʲʼa t͡ʃʼa new t͡ʃʼa t͡ʃʼa ʃʼa ʃʼa winter t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa t͡ʃʼəmaːxʷa ʃʼəmaːxʷa ʃʼəmaːxʷa mustache paːt͡ʃʼa paːt͡ʃʼa paːʃʼa paːʃʼa

Grammar Disappearance of the Absolutive Third Person Plural In Circassian, there are two ways to mark the third person plural on the verb, depending on the role of the noun (Ergative vs. Absolutive): Absolutive Plural: Indicated by the suffix x . This marks the plural subject of intransitive verbs or the plural object of transitive verbs. Ergative Plural: Indicated by the prefix ja- (or a- in some contexts). This marks the plural subject of transitive verbs.

абы ар илъэгъуащ "(s)he saw it" (Singular Subject, Singular Object) абы ахэр илъэгъуахэщ "(s)he saw them" (Singular Subject, Plural Object - marked by suffix -хэ) абыхэм ар ялъэгъуащ "they saw it" (Plural Subject - marked by prefix я-, Singular Object) абыхэм ахэр ялъэгъуахэщ "they saw them" (Plural Subject and Plural Object)

In Modern Standard Kabardian, the Absolutive third-person plural suffix (x / ) has disappeared. As a result, the verb form for a plural absolutive often resembles the singular form, even though the pronoun remains plural (ахэр).

English Proto-Kabardian Other Kabardian dialects Modern Standard Kabardian Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Intransitive (Subject is Plural) (s)he went they went ар кӀуа ахэр кӀуах ар кӀуас ахэр кӀуахэс ар кӀуащ ахэр кӀуащ (s)he read they read ар егьа ахэр егьах ар егьас ахэр егьахэс ар еджащ ахэр еджащ (s)he is going they are going ар макӀуэ ахэр макӀуэх ар макӀуэ ахэр макӀуэх ар макӀуэ ахэр макӀуэ (s)he says they say жеӀэ жеӀэх жеӀэ жеӀэх жеӀэ жеӀэ Transitive (Object is Plural) (s)he saw it (s)he saw them абы ар илъэгъуа абы ахэр илъэгъуах абы ар илъэгъуас абы ахэр илъэгъуасэх абы ар илъэгъуащ абы ахэр илъэгъуащ (s)he killed it (s)he killed them абы ар иукӀа абы ахэр иукӀах абы ар иукӀас абы ахэр иукӀахэс абы ар иукӀащ абы ахэр иукӀащ

Disappearance of the Present Tense -r Suffix In Modern Kabardian, the suffix -r , which typically marks the dynamic present tense in other Circassian dialects, has disappeared in specific contexts: **Negative Present Tense:** The suffix is dropped before the negative marker -q'əm. **Imperfect Tense:** The suffix is dropped before the past tense marker -t.

English Proto-Kabardian(Retains -r-) Modern Standard Kabardian(Drops -r-) (s)he does not read it ар еджэркъым ар еджэкъым (s)he does not see it абы илъэгъуэркъым абы илъэгъуэкъым (s)he used to smoke ар ефэрт ар ефэт (s)he used to go ар кӀуэрт ар кӀуэт

References

Урыс Хь. Ш. (2000). Адыгэбзэм и тхыдэ: ІыхьитIу зэхэлъу. Налшык: Эльбрус. Nikolayev, Sergei L.; Starostin, Sergei A. (1994). A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary (Edited by S. A. Starostin). Moscow: Asterisk Publishers. Preface. Chirikba, Viacheslav A. (1996). Common West Caucasian: The Reconstruction of its Phonological System and Parts of its Lexicon and Morphology. Leiden, The Netherlands: Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies (CNWS Publications, Vol. 48). . Kuipers, Aert Hendrik (1975). A Dictionary of Proto-Circassian Roots (PdR Press Publications on North Caucasian Languages 1). Lisse, Netherlands: The Peter de Ridder Press. PDF.