Japan is a country that frequently experiences typhoons, and one with an extensive written historical record in the form of national histories, temple and shrine records, chronicles, and diaries. Numerous typhoon records exist scattered across the nation: at least 310 storms have been recorded between 794 and 1400 in Kyoto alone. Typhoons have been described in works of literature such as The Pillow Book and The Tale of Genji. Particularly damaging typhoons have been named as reasons for era name changes. The kamikaze typhoons in the 13th century prevented the Mongol conquest of Japan.
Background In historical records, the term is most often used to refer to typhoons, though the use ot this word is not limited to tropical cyclones. Several other terms were also used, such as , appearing as early as the Nihon Shoki; and , which was chiefly used in Japanese literature between the 10th and 14th centuries, but was possibly applied for typhoons as late as the 15th century.
Through utilizing paleotempestological methods, past long-term trends in typhoon activity can be determined. Storm deposits in Kamikoshiki-shima indicate periods of heightened activity between 3,600 and 2,500 years before present; between 1,000 and 300 years before present; and around the time of the kamikaze typhoons. Sediments at Lake Daija in Amakusa mark an active period between 250 and 1600 AD. Analysis of historical texts in Kyoto revealed an increased frequency of typhoons in the 12th–14th centuries compared to the 9th–11th centuries. Shifts in annual activity patterns can also be observed. During the 9th–11th centuries, over 70% of typhoons that struck Kyoto occurred between late August and mid-October, whereas in the 12th century this ratio drops to around 60%, and in turn the number of typhoons between late July and mid-August saw an increase. Through the 13th and 14th centuries, this trend continued, while the number of early- and late-season typhoons (before late July and after mid-October, respectively) rose. The increased frequency of typhoon impacts in Kyoto between 1210 and 1360, particularly in the early season, is likely correlated to a temperature drop and a southerly shift of the westerlies that coincided with the end of the Nara-Heian-Kamakura warm period in 1296.
Historical typhoons Pre-800 Between 451 and 484: Analysis of "resin freckles" (resin-filled permanent fissures in the wood caused by strong wind) in yakusugi cedar trees indicate that an intense typhoon with estimated winds of () struck Yakushima. Yamaguchi et al. (2012) estimates the year of the event at 473. September 9, 473 (O.S. September 8): A strong typhoon struck the Kumano Region (the southern portion of Wakayama and Mie Prefectures) and destroyed swaths of woodland. Manabe & Kawakatsu (1968) estimated the windspeed at (). This is one of, if not the, earliest recorded instance of an individual typhoon in Japanese history. While earlier records (e.g., during the reigns of Emperors Jimmu and Keikō) do depict similar storm events, the emperors themselves are largely considered to be legendary figures and their records unreliable. Between 511 and 528: Analysis of resin freckles in yakusugi cedar trees indicate that an intense typhoon with estimated winds of () struck Yakushima. Between 537 and 552: Analysis of resin freckles in yakusugi cedar trees indicate that an intense typhoon with estimated winds of () struck Yakushima. Yamaguchi et al. (2012) estimates the year of the event at 545. This is the strongest wind event included in the study, with a possible return period of 5,000 years. 638: A typhoon affected Yamato Province (modern-day Nara Prefecture), snapping trees and destroying homes. 639: A typhoon struck Yamato Province. 643: A typhoon struck Yamato Province. 674 or 675: A typhoon destroyed houses in Yamato Province. 675 or 676: A typhoon caused damage in Yoshino District, Nara. 679 or 680: A typhoon in Yamato Province damaged houses and trees. October 19, 698 (O.S. October 16): A typhoon struck Shimōsa Province, destroying people's houses. October 1, 701 (O.S. September 27): According to the Shoku Nihongi, typhoons and locusts swept through 17 provinces, namely Mikawa, Tōtōmi, Sagami, Ōmi, Shinano, Echizen, Sado, Tajima, Hōki, Izumo, Bizen, Aki, Suō, Nagato, Kii, Sanuki, and Iyo, devastating harvests across Japan and destroying peasants' houses. This damage appears to have occurred through late August and September, and reported to the royal court on this date. On October 10, envoys were sent to affected regions to deliver supplies such as food and clothes, in a practice called . On October 21, Emperor Monmu himself visited Kii Province to encourage the disaster-stricken people. September 5, 702 (O.S. September 1): A typhoon struck Suruga and Shimōsa provinces, destroying people's houses and damaging crops. This was followed by a famine, and on October 18, envoys were sent to affected regions to provide shingō. 705: During the seventh lunar month (between July 29 and August 27), a typhoon struck Yamato Province, damaging people's houses. 713: A typhoon in Yamato Province damaged trees and destroyed houses. November 16, 714 (O.S. November 12): A typhoon swept through Japan, causing damage in Mino, Musashi, Shimotsuke, Harima, Hōki and Iyo. Said provinces were exempt from taxation for the year. Between 728 and 749: Analysis of resin freckles in yakusugi cedar trees indicate that an intense typhoon with estimated winds of () struck Yakushima. 742: A typhoon caused flooding across the Kinki region. November 26, 746 (O.S. November 22): A strong typhoon struck Hyūga Province (modern-day Miyazaki Prefecture). Manabe & Kawakatsu (1968) estimated the windspeed at (). Between 750 and 764: Analysis of resin freckles in yakusugi cedar trees indicate that an intense typhoon with estimated winds of () struck Yakushima. October 9, 753 (O.S. October 5): Strong southerly winds from a typhoon caused storm surges in Osaka Bay, which inundated the coast of Settsu Province. The village of (within modern-day Osaka City, near ) was hit particularly hard, leaving more than 110 buildings destroyed and at least 560 people drowned. The government supplied the affected people with rice and other necessities, and let the coastal residents move to vacant plots within , the capital at the time. This typhoon possibly caused crop damage in Kyushu. Due to the damage from this storm, in January 754, the government exempted Settsu Province and Kyushu from taxation for the year. September 754: A typhoon caused widespread damage across Kinai and surrounding regions. 759: A typhoon affected Yamato Province. September 28, 759 (O.S. September 24): A strong typhoon struck Kyushu. Fierce southerly winds destroyed government and civilian buildings. Manabe & Kawakatsu (1968) estimated the windspeed at (). Between 765 and 778: Analysis of resin freckles in yakusugi cedar trees indicate that a typhoon with estimated winds of () struck Yakushima. July 18, 766 (O.S. July 14): A strong typhoon struck the provinces of Hyūga, Ōsumi and Satsuma. Manabe & Kawakatsu (1968) estimated the windspeed at (). February 24, 770 (O.S. February 20): A strong typhoon struck Kyushu. Manabe & Kawakatsu (1968) estimated the windspeed at (). September 11, 772 (O.S. September 7): In Yamato Province, heavy rain began to pour on September 6, followed by fierce winds on September 11. In Kawachi Province, stormwater breached eight sections of the , which was built by Emperor Nintoku according to Nihon Shoki between the end of the 4th century and the early 5th century; eleven sections of the embankment in ; and five sections of embankment in . September 25, 775 (O.S. September 21): The provinces of Ise, Owari, and Mino, comprising part of the Tōkai region, suffered major flooding, washing away more than 300 peasants and 1,000 horse and cattle. In addition, 19 Buddhist temple buildings were destroyed. December 8, 775 (O.S. December 4): A strong typhoon struck the provinces of Hyūga and Satsuma. Manabe & Kawakatsu (1968) estimated the windspeed at (). October 18, 776 (O.S. October 14): A strong typhoon struck Iki Province. Manabe & Kawakatsu (1968) estimated the windspeed at (). August 777: A typhoon impacted Tosa Province, damaging houses and rice crops. People and livestock were swept away along the Niyodo River. 779: A typhoon struck Yamato Province. Between 779 and 798: Analysis of resin freckles in yakusugi cedar trees indicate that an intense typhoon with estimated winds of () struck Yakushima. 785: During the seventh and eighth lunar months (between August 14 and October 11), typhoons impacted the provinces of Tōtōmi, Shimousa, Hitachi, and Noto, destroying crops and causing a famine. On November 20, envoys were sent to provide shingō to affected areas. September 16, 796 (O.S. September 12): A typhoon caused flooding in Chikuzen Province, and shingō was provided.
800–999 September 5, 817 (O.S. September 1): A powerful typhoon, known as , produced storm surges in Settsu Province along Osaka Bay, killing 220 people. Mid-August 819: A typhoon affected Kyoto. Early June 836: A typhoon affected Kyoto. Between 845 and 868: Analysis of resin freckles in yakusugi cedar trees indicate that an intense typhoon with estimated winds of () struck Yakushima. Late July 847: A typhoon affected Kyoto. September 7–9, 848 (O.S. September 3–5): A likely typhoon brought heavy rain and flooding to Kyoto and surrounding regions. Rain poured throughout the night of September 7 and intensified on September 8 "as though a well were turned upside down." On September 9, numerous sections of embankment along Yodo River were breached, including the Manda Embankment, and floodwater swept away people and horses. , built across the Katsura River, was washed away and only an long section remained. The floodwater reached a depth deeper than during a prior flood in 806, according to the elderly who remembered the event. Mid-June 850: A typhoon affected Kyoto. June 19, 858 (O.S. June 15): A strong typhoon impacted Kyushu. Government buildings were razed to the ground and crop seedlings were devastated. Manabe & Kawakatsu (1968) estimated the windspeed at (). Late July 859: A typhoon affected Kyoto. Mid-August 860: A typhoon affected Kyoto. October 6–7, 860 (O.S. October 2–3): On October 6, a typhoon struck the Kinki Region, snapping large trees and destroying numerous houses in Kyoto. Heavy rain continued throughout the following day and the Katsura and Kamo rivers overflowed, rendering them impassable on foot or by horse. Coastal areas of the Kinai Region, particularly along Osaka Bay, suffered storm surges, causing human and livestock losses. July 16, 865 (O.S. July 12): The Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku records a typhoon that destroyed houses and snapped trees in Kyoto. Two of the doors were toppled at , one of the gates of Heian Palace's Dairi. May 866: The provinces of Owari and Awa (modern-day Tokushima Prefecture) were flooded by a typhoon, bringing upon a famine in both regions. In Awa, 80,000 of rice were supplied to the masses as disaster relief. August 29, 869 (O.S. August 25): A typhoon impacted Higo Province, blowing tiles off of roofs, uprooting trees, and demolishing many buildings. A storm surge struck six coastal counties of the province, killing numerous people and livestock. Between 871 and 878: Analysis of resin freckles in yakusugi cedar trees indicate that an intense typhoon with estimated winds of () struck Yakushima.