The history of Benevento encompasses a series of events that have shaped the city of Benevento from antiquity to the present day.
Origin of the name According to the theory proposed by Raffaele Garrucci, the original name of the city was, in the Oscan language, Malies or Malocis, later changed to Maloenton (or possibly Maloenta or Malowent). This hypothesis is based on the discovery of a bronze coin from the 4th century BC, bearing the inscription Malies in the exergue, along with a depiction of a woman's head with her hair bound in a sakkos. The reverse features a bull with a human face and, above it, a bearded head. Another contemporary coin displays a bull on the reverse with a helmet featuring cheek guards above it, and on the obverse, a youthful head, possibly representing Apollo..
According to another historian, Gianni Vergineo, the original name of the city, Maloenton, has Greek origins. Malòeis, derived from Malon, a Doric variant of the Attic Mèlon (this Doric aspect connects to the mythical founder of Benevento, Diomedes), meaning a flock of sheep or goats, is an adjectival form indicating an area abundant with herds of sheep and goats, clearly referencing the widespread forestry and pastoral activities practiced by the Samnites. Vergineo also does not rule out the derivation of Maloenton from mallos (fleece of a sheep)..
The genitive of Malòeis is entos, thus Malòentos. Due to the similarity of the morpheme entos with iontos (genitive of the present participle of iènai = to come), the Romans interpreted the original name of Benevento as implying a "bad event" (malum eventum). Only after the victory over Pyrrhus in 272 BC was the name transformed into Beneventum, signifying a good omen..
Another hypothesis links the origin of the name to another animal symbol of Benevento, the bull, a symbol of the Samnites. The Greek poet Theocritus refers to the bull as Malon.
Mythical foundation The legendary foundation of Benevento is tied to the mythological figure of Diomedes, an Achaean celebrated in Homer's Odyssey for his valorHomer, Odyssey (translation by Ippolito Pindemonte), III, 233-235. and credited by various historians with founding numerous cities in Daunia.According to Virgil, Pliny the Elder, Appian, and Justin, Diomedes founded the powerful city of Argirippa (Arpi). Strabo attributes to him the foundation of Canosa and Siponto, in addition to Arpi, and states that the Tavoliere delle Puglie was anciently called the Plain of Diomedes. The historian Solinus attributes the founding of Venosa and Venafro to Diomedes.
According to the myth, Diomedes, a victim of marital infidelity, was forced to leave his Greek homeland and come to Italy, where he founded Arpi and assisted King Daunus in a war against the Messapians. The king denied him the promised reward (a portion of the kingdom), but Diomedes persisted, claiming his right. A natural brother of Diomedes, acting as a judge, ruled against him because he was enamored with Daunus's daughter, Evippe. The Achaean hero then seized a portion of the kingdom, marking its boundaries with stones. Daunus had the stones removed, but they miraculously returned to their place.
The Beneventan version of the myth is provided by Procopius (6th century), who states that "the city was founded by Diomedes, son of Tydeus, expelled from Argos after the fall of Troy. As a token of recognition, he left the city the tusks of the Calydonian Boar, which his uncle Meleager had killed as a hunting trophy: they are still there and are a spectacle to behold, with their crescent shape and a length of no less than three spans."
The Calydonian Boar mentioned in the legend became, during the Middle Ages, the symbol of Benevento, to the extent that it is still depicted in the city's coat of arms. In this regard, a 19th-century Beneventan historian notes that the noble origin of Benevento "is fully testified by the Greek marble coat of arms embedded in the bell tower of the archbishopric, depicting the Calydonian Boar killed by Meleager, Diomedes' uncle, in the forests of Aetolia; and the same hunt is observed in a bas-relief existing in the archiepiscopal palace.".
The hero Diomedes is also linked to the foundation of Argyrippa (the city of the horse). Two ancient Beneventan coins from the Roman period depict the figure of a horse with the inscription Malies on the older one (4th century BC) and Beneventod on the more recent one.
Pre-Roman era The strategic position and environmental conditions of the area have long attracted populations from various eras. Over the years, occasional excavations have uncovered several traces of settlements dating back to the Neolithic period. In the second half of the 20th century, an archaeological exploration in the garden of the former La Salle college in Piazzetta Vari revealed a necropolis from the Orientalizing period (late 8th century BC to early 7th century BC). Other ceramic and bronze artifacts (8th–7th centuries BC), unearthed in various excavation campaigns, are preserved in the Museum of Samnium..
A subsequent phase of Benevento's history is linked to the events of the Samnites. It is likely that the Beneventan territory served as a meeting point for various Samnite tribes, including the Hirpini (who, settled also on the surrounding highlands, likely controlled the area directly.), the Pentri, and the Caudini. Initially, human presence was predominantly rural, with a few scattered villages based on an agro-pastoral economy. However, starting in the 4th century BC (during the Samnite Wars), a more organized proto-urban settlement developed in a more defensible position.. From this period, two Samnite necropolises have been discovered close to each other, one near the former La Salle college and the other at the Rocca dei Rettori, characterized by earthen tumuli of varying shapes covering one or more burials. Notable among these is a tomb constructed with squared yellow and gray tuff blocks, forming a sealed chamber with a chest-like cover; inside, a staircase was found, created by compacting stone flakes into steps. The skeleton was accompanied by modest but valuable grave goods, including a bronze patera containing an iron knife, two iron fibulae, and a bronze buckle. A contemporary necropolis was also found on the city outskirts in the Olivola district, where warrior tombs with belts and weapons were uncovered.
Roman period
Republican era
The Samnium region was the theater of three wars against the Romans. In the Third Samnite War (298 BC–290 BC), the Romans defeated the Samnites' allies one by one, ultimately forcing them into a peace treaty. It seems that Maleventum was conquered by Rome, though the precise occasion is unknown. It was certainly in Roman hands by 275 BC, when they definitively subdued their enemies following the victory over Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, there.. In 268 BC, it became a Roman colony with the rights of Latin cities and was renamed Beneventum.
During the Second Punic War, it was repeatedly used by Roman generals as an important outpost due to its proximity to Campania and its strength as a fortress. In its immediate vicinity, two of the war's most decisive actions took place: in 214 BC, the Carthaginian general Hanno was defeated by the Proconsul Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, and in 212 BC, Hanno's camp, where he had amassed a large quantity of grain and other supplies, was stormed and captured by the Consul Quintus Fulvius Flaccus.Livy xxii. 13, xxiv. 14, 16, xxv. 13, 14, 15, 17; Appian, Hannib. 36, 37. Despite its territory being repeatedly ravaged by the Carthaginians, Beneventum was still one of the 18 Latin colonies that, in 209 BC, could and willingly provided the requested quota of men and money to continue the war.Liv. xxvii. 10.
There is no mention of Benevento during the Social War (91 BC–88 BC): it seems to have escaped the calamities that afflicted many Samnite cities at that time, and by the end of the Roman Republic, it was described as a rather prosperous city,Appian, B.C. iv. 3; Strab. v. p. 250; Cicero in Verr. i. 1. 5 located at the intersection of the Via Appia and the Via Minucia (later the Via Appia Traiana).
Imperial era
In 42 BC, under the Second Triumvirate, Lucius Munatius Plancus established a colony for veterans in Benevento (Iulia Concordia Felix Beneventum). The city's territory was significantly expanded, incorporating that of Caudium; a third colony was established by Nero. In inscriptions from the reign of Septimius Severus, the city bore the title Colonia Julia Augusta Concordia Felix Beneventum.Appian l. c.; Lib. Colon. pp. 231, 232; Inscr. ap. Romanelli, vol. ii. pp. 382, 384; Orell. Inscr. 128, 590
Administratively, during the imperial era, the city (along with nearby Irpinia) was definitively detached from Samnium and initially incorporated into the Regio II Apulia et Calabria (i.e., Apulia) by Emperor Augustus, before being reassigned to Campania following the administrative reform by Hadrian
The historian Mario Rotili describes Roman Benevento at its peak as follows: "At its height, the city extended from the Ponte Leproso and the Pons Maior (Fratto Bridge) in the west to the area surrounding the Arch of Trajan in the east, with the Calore River marking the northern boundary and the Sabato River the southern one. In the far eastern part stood the Temple of Isis, built under Domitian in 88 AD, the Temple of Minerva Berecynthia, and the grand Arch of Trajan, erected between 114 and 117 AD at the start of the new road that shortened the route of the Appia and was named after the wise emperor. In the central part of the city were the Temple of Jupiter and a complex of sumptuous buildings, including the arch now called the Sacramento Arch; in the western part were the forum with the underlying cryptoporticus of the Santi Quaranta, the Basilica, the Sagittari porticoes, the so-called Commodian baths, the headquarters of various colleges, the Diana portico, the Longinus basilica, and the monumental theater, largely preserved.".
The importance and prosperous condition of Beneventum under the Roman Empire are sufficiently attested by the numerous ruins and inscriptions. Its wealth is also confirmed by the large number of coins it minted. Its prosperity was undoubtedly due to its favorable position along the Via Appia, at the junction of its two main branches (one of which later became the Via Traiana). The famous stop at Beneventum is recounted in Horace's narrative of his journey from Rome to Brundisium.Sat. i. 5, 71 Its advantageous location also earned it the honor of repeated visits from emperors, notably those of Nero, Trajan, and Septimius Severus.Tacitus Ann. xv. 34. Subsequent emperors granted the city additional territories and erected, or at least lent their names to, various public buildings.
It appears that Roman Benevento was also a hub of significant literary activity, starting with the grammarian Orbilius Pupillus, who taught for a long time in his native city before moving to Rome and was honored with a statue by his fellow citizens. Inscriptions also record similar honors for another grammarian, Rutilius Aelianus, and various orators and poets of local renown.
Origins of Christianity According to an undocumented legend, the first bishop of Benevento was Saint Photinus, consecrated by Saint Peter in 40 AD..
The first bishop with documented evidence is Saint Januarius, born around 272 in Benevento and martyred in 305 during the Diocletianic persecution of Christians.G. Giordano, San Gennaro, illustre cittadino bandito e dimenticato, in Aspetti di vita beneventana nei secc. XVII e XVIII, Napoli, 1976, p. 75.
In 313 AD, the Edict of Milan granted freedom of worship. Two centuries later, in 526, the cardinal priest Saint Felix of Samnium, the first Beneventan to succeed the Apostle Peter, was elected pope.
From the fall of the Roman Empire to the arrival of the Lombards