Dalit history encompasses the socio-political, economic, and cultural experiences of communities historically regarded as "untouchables" or oppressed castes in the Indian subcontinent. The term Dalit, meaning "broken" or "oppressed" in Sanskrit, was popularized in the 20th century by social reformers like Jyotirao Phule and B. R. Ambedkar to challenge caste-based discrimination and reclaim dignity. Dalit history is marked by systemic exclusion, as well as centuries of resilience, reform, and assertion for equality and human dignity. Dalit history spans centuries, from ancient religious texts and social codes that enforced caste hierarchies, to modern movements for equality, justice, and constitutional rights.
Ancient and medieval periods
The earliest mentions of social stratification appear in the Rigveda, where the Purusha Sukta hymn classifies society into four varnas—Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. While scholars debate whether this was prescriptive or descriptive, over time these categories hardened into a rigid caste system, eventually excluding large segments of society deemed "untouchables".Doniger, Wendy; Smith, Brian K. (1991). The Laws of Manu. Penguin Classics. pp. xxii–xxv. The roots of caste-based exclusion are found in ancient Hindu scriptures such as the Manusmriti, which codified a hierarchical four-tier varna system and institutionalized untouchability.Doniger, Wendy (trans.). The Laws of Manu. Penguin Books, 1991, pp. 25–30. Those outside the varna system, later called "avarnas", were relegated to occupations deemed impure and were socially ostracized.
The Mahabharata and Ramayana—two key Hindu epics—contain early depictions of caste transgressions. The story of Eklavya, a Nishada prince denied training by Guru Drona due to his caste, and Shambuka, a Shudra punished for performing penance, reflect deeply ingrained notions of caste hierarchy.Sharma, Arvind (2005). Hinduism and Human Rights: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford University Press. pp. 123–125.
Despite systemic exclusion and marginalisation, spiritual resistance was not absent. The Bhakti movement saw the emergence of saint-poets from Dalit and lower-caste backgrounds, including Ravidas, Chokhamela, and Kabir, who became central to the Bhakti movement, preaching spiritual equality and denouncing caste hierarchies.Zelliot, Eleanor. From Untouchable to Dalit: Essays on the Ambedkar Movement. Manohar Publishers, 1992, pp. 45–50. From southern India, saints like Nandanar, a Paraiyar devotee of Shiva from Tamil Nadu and Gora Kumbhar, a potter-saint from Maharashtra, expressed deep devotion while challenging caste exclusion through their lives and hymns.Zelliot, Eleanor (2001). From Untouchable to Dalit: Essays on the Ambedkar Movement. Manohar Publishers. pp. 47–52.
Colonial period During the British Raj, caste identities were formalized through censuses beginning in 1871, which reinforced and rigidified caste boundaries within administrative categories.Bayly, Susan (1999). Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 167–172. The British colonial state often treated caste as a fixed, hierarchical system, which led to both codification and deepening of caste divisions. At the same time, colonial modernity created spaces for early anti-caste activism. Iyothee Thass, a Tamil intellectual and writer, publicly rejected Hinduism and advocated for a return to Tamil Buddhism. In 1898, he founded the "Dravida Mahajana Sabha" and launched the newspaper Oru Paisa Tamilan, through which he criticized Brahmin domination and caste-based inequality.Aloysius, G. (1998). Religion as Emancipatory Identity: A Buddhist Movement among the Tamils under Colonialism. New Age International. pp. 25–27. They also promoted education and rights for Dalits.Sundar, Rajesh. Dalit Assertion and the Unfinished Democratic Revolution. Sage Publications, 2001, pp. 88–93.
In western India, Gopal Baba Walangkar (c. 1840–1900), a former army soldier, is regarded as one of the first Dalit ideologues and the pioneer of the Dalit movement. His 1888 pamphlet, Vital Vidhvansak, openly criticized caste oppression and advocated social reform. Shahu Maharaj, the ruler of Kolhapur State, introduced reservations for non-Brahmins and Dalits in education and employment well before Indian independence.Omvedt, Gail (2004). Ambedkar: Towards an Enlightened India. Penguin Books. pp. 41–44. Another pioneer was Harichand Thakur (c. 1812–1878) with his Matua organisation that involved the Namasudra (Chandala) community in the Bengal Presidency. Another early social reformer who worked to improve conditions for Dalits was Jyotirao Phule (1827–1890).
Christian missionaries, particularly in south and northeast India, contributed to the spread of education among Dalits, although conversions also attracted backlash from caste-Hindu elites.Mosse, David (2012). The Saint in the Banyan Tree: Christianity and Caste Society in India. University of California Press. pp. 90–93.
In North India, certain Dalit sub-groups such as the Jatav community also experienced organised social mobilisation during the early twentieth century, with efforts directed toward education, community organisation, and political participation.
The Ambedkar era
B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956), born into the Mahar caste, emerged as the most prominent leader in Dalit history. He earned doctorates from Columbia University and the London School of Economics, and led campaigns for equal access to water, education, and temples—such as the Mahad Satyagraha (1927) and Kalaram Temple Entry (1930).Keer, Dhananjay. Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission. Popular Prakashan, 1990, pp. 130–145.
As chair of the drafting committee of the Constitution of India, Ambedkar ensured legal safeguards for Scheduled Castes. In 1956, he and over 500,000 followers converted to Navayana Buddhism, initiating the Dalit Buddhist movement.Queen, Christopher S., and King, Sallie B. Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. SUNY Press, 1996, pp. 172–175.
Post-Independence movements The Constitution of India outlawed untouchability under Article 17 of the Constitution of India, and introduced reservations for Scheduled Castes in education, politics, and employment. Soon after its independence in 1947, India introduced a reservation system to enhance the ability of Dalits to have political representation and to obtain government jobs and education. The 1950 Constitution of India included measures to improve the socio-economic conditions of Dalits. Aside from banning untouchability, these included the reservation system, a means of positive discrimination that created the classification of Scheduled Castes as Dalits. Communities that were categorised as being one of those groups were guaranteed a percentage of the seats in the national and state legislatures, as well as in government jobs and places of education.
By 1995, of all federal government jobs in India – 10.1 per cent of Class I, 12.7 per cent of Class II, 16.2 per cent of Class III, and 27.2 per cent of Class IV jobs were held by Dalits. Of the most senior jobs in government agencies and government-controlled enterprises, only 1 per cent were held by Dalits, not much change in 40 years. In the 21st century, Dalits have been elected to India's highest judicial and political offices. In 1997, India elected its first Dalit President, K. R. Narayanan. Many social organisations have promoted better conditions for Dalits through education, healthcare and employment. Nonetheless, while caste-based discrimination was prohibited and untouchability abolished by the Constitution of India, such practices are still widespread. To prevent harassment, assault, discrimination and similar acts against these groups, the Government of India enacted the Prevention of Atrocities Act, also called the SC/ST Act, on 31 March 1995.
In accordance with the order of the Bombay High Court, the Information and Broadcasting Ministry (I&B Ministry) of the Government of India issued an advisory to all media channels in September 2018, asking them to use "Scheduled Castes" instead of the word "Dalit".
Yet caste-based atrocities—such as the Karamchedu massacre (1985), Tsundur massacre (1991), and Khairlanji massacre (2006)—exposed the gap between law and reality.Human Rights Watch. Hidden Apartheid: Caste Discrimination against India's “Untouchables”. 2007. pp. 14–16.
In 1972, the Dalit Panthers emerged in Maharashtra, inspired by the Black Panther Party in the United States. Their literature and activism—led by poets like Namdeo Dhasal—voiced Dalit anger, identity, and aspiration.Dangle, Arjun (Ed.). Poisoned Bread: Translations from Modern Marathi Dalit Literature. Orient Blackswan, 1992, pp. xv–xxi
Contemporary developments
Dalit assertion gained political momentum with the rise of the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in the 1980s.Jaffrelot, Christophe. *India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North India*. Permanent Black, 2003, pp. 212–225.
In 2016, the suicide of Rohith Vemula, a Ph.D. scholar from the University of Hyderabad, sparked nationwide protests and brought attention to caste-based discrimination in higher education.Subramanian, A. “Rohith Vemula's Suicide and the Challenge of Caste in India.” The New Yorker, March 8, 2016.
Dalits in Contemporary Politics
Dalits have emerged as a significant force in modern Indian politics. The rise of Dalit-based political parties and leaders since the late 20th century has helped reshape democratic representation for historically marginalized communities.
One of the most notable figures is Kanshi Ram, who founded the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in 1984. His vision of a unified "Bahujan" identity—comprising Dalits, OBCs, Adivasis, and minorities—provided a political platform for historically oppressed groups. Mayawati, his protégé, later served four terms as Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, the most populous Indian state. Her political rise symbolized Dalit assertion in mainstream governance.Rai, Santosh (2009). "Mayawati: A Triumph of Self-Respect". India Today. Retrieved 30 May 2025.
Dalit leaders have also made inroads into national parties. Ram Vilas Paswan, founder of the Lok Janshakti Party, served in several union ministries. In southern India, parties like Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi (VCK), led by Thol. Thirumavalavan, advocate for Dalit rights through Dravidian and Ambedkarite ideologies.Wyatt, Andrew (2009). Party System Change in South India: Political Entrepreneurs, Patterns and Processes. Routledge. pp. 102–105.
Outside India, Dalit voices have gained traction in international human rights discussions. Organizations such as Equality Labs and the International Dalit Solidarity Network have campaigned against caste-based discrimination globally, including in the diaspora.Equality Labs. "Caste in the United States" Retrieved 30 May 2025.
Dalit women in history
While caste-based oppression has long affected Dalit communities, Dalit women have borne a disproportionate burden due to the intersection of caste and gender. Historically marginalized in both feminist and anti-caste movements, their stories represent resilience and transformation.