Civil conflicts in Vietnam were a series of events characterized by political violence and civil war which took place soon after the end of World War II. It lasted from the August Revolution in 1945 until the establishment of the State of Vietnam in 1949, during which the communist-led Viet Minh suppressed and terrorized both nationalist and Trotskyist groups. According to David G. Marr, it was an era of hatred, betrayal, and murder.
Background Vietnam had been under French control as part of French Indochina since the 1880s. Although under oppression, Vietnam's struggle for independence was shaped by nationalist movements in two main strands: reformist and revolutionary, both embraced republicanism and anticommunist nationalism. Nationalist groups included the Vietnamese Nationalist Party, Vietnamese Revolutionary League, Đại Việt Nationalist Party, and religious communities such as Buddhist, Hòa Hảo, Cao Đài, and Catholic. Vietnamese communism comprised both the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP), established by Nguyen Sinh Cung in 1930, and Trotskyist groups.
Fractures between nationalists and communists emerged in the late 1920s as the two groups differed in their visions for postcolonial Vietnam. Revolutionary nationalists accused communists of being factional and subservient to foreign influence, while communists contended that nationalism was narrow in scope and republicanism was not radical enough. Vietnamese communists envisioned their revolution as both a proletarian revolution and an integral part of world revolution, rather than solely a national movement. They believed class struggle and purges were essential to dismantle older social structures and pave the way for socialism. The Vietnamese communist revolution's pursuit of centralized control fueled a protracted civil conflict, characterized by violence, ideological purges, and the suppression of competing nationalist movements. The ICP was primarily responsible for starting widespread Vietnamese-on-Vietnamese violence.
Before 1945, the Indochinese Communist Party and nationalist parties at one point cooperated, especially under Chinese pressure during the resistance against Japan. They might share a common educational background and were sometimes related by blood or marriage. From 1924 to 1927, in southern China, diverse anti-French colonial Vietnamese groups interacted with each other, as well as with Chinese, Korean, and other groups. From 1941 to 1944 in southern China, the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (Viet Quoc) and the Vietnam Revolutionary League (Viet Cach) joined Viet Minh against the Japanese, sometimes denouncing each other to the Chinese, but did not kidnap or assassinate each other. It was the competition for membership, aid and patronage from the Chinese, rather than ideological differences, that led to increased tensions between the exiled organizations.
The ICP also cooperated with the Trotskyists in Cochinchina from 1933 to 1937. But in 1945, the Viet Minh had carried out assassinations of Trotskyist leaders.
After the end of World War II, the Empire of Japan surrendered and the Allied Powers made the decision to temporarily split Indochina in half at the 16th parallel. This arrangement allowed the Chinese Kuomintang to receive the Japanese surrender in the North, while British forces did so in the South. The British, however, also enabled the French to reestablish control over southern Vietnam.
Northern Front The Viet Minh sought to consolidate power by terrorizing and purging rival Vietnamese nationalist groups and Trotskyist activists. In 1946, the Franco-Chinese and Ho–Sainteny Agreements enabled French forces to replace the Chinese north of the 16th parallel and facilitated a coexistence between the DRV and French that strengthened the Viet Minh while undermining the nationalists. That summer, the Viet Minh colluded with French forces to eliminate nationalists, targeted for their ardent anti-colonialism. Civil war broke out in Vietnam for the first time since the eighteenth century.
Đại Việt National Socialist Party and the Empire of Vietnam The Đại Việt National Socialist Party (abbreviated as Đại Việt Quốc Xã or ĐVQX) followed national socialism and was founded by in 1936. Formed in early 1944 in Vietnam, the Đại Việt National Alliance brought together the four Đại Việt parties (Đại Việt Quốc dân, Đại Việt Quốc Xã, Đại Việt Dân Chính, and Đại Việt Duy Dân) along with the Tân Việt Nam Quốc dân Đảng. By June 1945, the alliance had become the most important nationalist revolutionary force in northern Vietnam.
Đại Việt Quốc Xã was the only Dai Viet force that committed politically to the Japanese, providing support for the establishment of the Empire of Vietnam, sponsored by Japan during the end of the Pacific War. Đại Việt Quốc Xã was a monarchist force with about 2,000 members, influential in the Northern areas such as Hanoi and Hai Phong during World War II.Đem sức ta mà tự giải phóng cho ta, báo Giáo dục thời đại
After the Viet Minh seized power, the government of Trần Trọng Kim has fallen, on September 5, 1945, Minister of Interior Affairs Võ Nguyên Giáp ordered the dissolution of Dai Viet National Socialist Party on the grounds that "the Dai Viet National Socialist Party had aiding the invaders to plot things harmful to Vietnam's independence activities".
Phục Hưng Hội and the death of Ngô Đình Khôi
The was founded in early 1942, led by three brothers Ngô Đình Khôi, Ngo Dinh Diem and Ngo Dinh Nhu. The association supported Prince Cường Để, advocating alliance with the Japanese Empire to eliminate French influence in Indochina. The association developed mainly among the mandarin families in Huế, not widely among the masses.
Although the activities of the Phục Hưng Hội were very secret, they were still discovered by the French Sûreté. In early 1944, the Sûreté in Annam organized a round-up that dismantled the association, while the Japanese made no move to intervene. Ngo Dinh Diem reemerged as a revolutionary nationalist activist.
On March 9, 1945, the Japanese overthrow the French administration in Indochina, the Phuc Hung Hoi resumed its activities. The association also actively promoted the establishment of the Empire of Vietnam under the leadership of Prince Cường Để, as emperor and Ngo Dinh Diem, as chief of cabinet (prime minister). However, the Japanese chose to continue to maintain Emperor Bao Dai, and under pressure from the Japanese, Bao Dai appointed Trần Trọng Kim as Chief of Cabinet of the Empire of Vietnam. This event divided the support of the Phuc Hung Hoi for Kim regime.
After Japanese surrendered, the Dai Viet Phuc Hung Hoi lost its support once again. Especially after Ngô Đình Khôi, along with Ngô Đình Huân and Phạm Quỳnh, were arrested and executed by the Viet Minh,Phạm Quỳnh và bản án tử hình đối với ông , Nhật Hoa Khanh, Tạp chí Xưa & Nay - Số 269 (10/2006)Trở lại chuyện Phạm Quỳnh , 6/5/2017, Tuần báo Văn nghệ causing great damage to the association's morale. The Phuc Hung Hoi was forced to dissolve, and a few key members moved to another political movements with greater influence.
Duy dân Party On September 1, 1945, Đại Việt Duy dân Đảng members was attacked by the Viet Minh in Nga My (now part of Gia Sơn, Ninh Bình). Duy dân leader Lý Đông A later moved to Hòa Bình province. Many members from other places who were persecuted also fled to Hoa Binh. In 1946, Việt Minh forces attacked Duy dân's base in Hòa Bình; Lý Đông A reportedly disappeared or killed in the aftermath. The Duy dân party was virtually dissolved. Its surviving partisans fled to Thanh Hóa and the Phát Diệm–Bùi Chu area.
Nationalist Parties Front
The Nationalist Parties Front was formed in southern China in May 1945. It brought together the Đại Việt Quốc dân Đảng, the Đại Việt Dân Chính Đảng, and the Overseas Section of the Việt Nam Quốc dân Đảng.
After the Viet Minh seized Hanoi on August 19, 1945, Lê Khang led a group of Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng from Hanoi to Vĩnh Yên on the Lào Cai – Hanoi railway. On August 29, 1945, thousands of Viet Minh supporters from three neighboring districts approached the VNQDĐ base in Vinh Yen and called on them to join the parade through the town. But the VNQDĐ refused, the Viet Minh shot VNQDĐ members. VNQDĐ returned, killed and captured about 150 people.
On September 18, 1945, , leader of the Democratic Party of Vietnam, and representatives of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam government from Hanoi came to Vinh Yen to negotiate. The negotiations failed, Lê Khang attacked Phúc Yên but unsuccessful. Government forces launched a counter-offensive in Vinh Yen but failed to capture the town. After that, both sides ceased fire for several months. The Nationalists did not compete with the Viet Minh for influence in the countryside, except for occupying Tam Long farm in Vinh Yen. In early December 1945, the Viet Minh attacked Tam Long but were repelled.
Gen. Võ Nguyên Giáp described the leaders of VNQDĐ and Đồng Minh Hội as people who considered themselves patriots but were in fact just "a group of reactionaries trying to find attention" with the support of Kuomintang. In addition, the Chinese forces also pressured members of the VNQDĐ to hold important positions in the government. Giáp believed that there was no different than replacing French colonialism with Chinese domination. Ho Chi Minh advised Giáp to be patient, because VNQDĐ had the strong support of 200,000 Chinese troops stationed throughout the North.
In June 1946, when the Chinese forces withdrew to Yunnan, the Viet Minh militia isolated the towns controlled by VNQDĐ. On June 18, 1946, the Viet Minh attacked Phú Thọ and Việt Trì. The Vietnamese National Revolutionary Army in Phu Tho withdrew after 4 days.
In June 1946, in Hanoi, members of the VNQDĐ met to discuss whether to acknowledge the leadership of the Viet Minh, retreat to the border, or organize a coup to overthrow the government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Meanwhile, Trương Tử Anh, the leader of the Vietnam Nationalist Front was planning a coup that could begin with attacks on French soldiers to cause chaos. The French also intended to parade around Hoàn Kiếm Lake to celebrate Bastille Day (July 14, 1789), causing the security forces of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam to worry that this event could become a target of parties opposing the Viet Minh.
On the night of July 11, the Northern Public Security force received information that the VNQDĐ force had finished printing leaflets and appeals, some of which had been sent to the provinces. Early in the morning of July 12, the VNQDĐ headquarters in Hanoi would withdraw into secrecy to carry out the final stage of a coup to overthrow the Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
Ho Chi Minh assigned Võ Nguyên Giáp and Trần Quốc Hoàn, who later became Minister of Public Security, the task of neutralizing demonstrations organized by the VNQDĐ and the Đồng Minh Hội to end the propaganda activities of these parties among the people. Giáp said: "We had to punish the saboteurs... But at all costs we had to avoid provocation and ensure that no major conflicts occurred". After the "Ôn Như Hầu case", the coup attempt failed. Trương Tử Anh arrested and executed,Penniman, Howard R. Elections in South Vietnam. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace, 1972, tr. 166. Nhất Linh, Vũ Hồng Khanh, and Nguyễn Hải Thần fled to China.
Đồng Minh Hội