The Necropolis of the Rabs, also known as the Necropolis of Sainte-Monique, Necropolis of Bordj Djedid, or Djebel Louzir, is a Punic-era cemetery (5th–2nd century BC) located on the archaeological site of Carthage in Tunisia, which was excavated between the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The excavation, led by Alfred Louis Delattre, took place under the standard conditions of that period, which impacted the comprehensive understanding of the site. The cemetery, designated for an elite social group within the Punic city, contained marble sarcophagi—now housed in the National Museum of Carthage and the Louvre Museum—along with a diverse collection of funerary items, such as jewelry and ceramics. described these finds as significant examples of Punic art.
Despite the challenging excavation methods, researchers were able to examine the burial rituals and identify distinct features of the necropolis, distinguishing it from other known Punic burial sites in Carthage across various historical periods.
The archaeological site of the necropolis no longer exists in the early 21st century, as extensive , including the construction of the presidential palace along the coast, has altered the area.
Location and etymology Alfred Louis Delattre named the Necropolis of the Rabs in reference to “high sacerdotal dignitaries.” He applied this name to a sector of the Sainte-Monique necropolis due to the abundance and quality of the findings, which he believed belonged to “families or funerary colleges.” The term "rab," appearing in inscriptions and meaning “chief” in a general sense, reflects the challenges of interpreting the structure and organization of the Punic city, as its usage varies across contexts.
The Necropolis of the Rabs is situated in a “rugged and peripheral region” of the Punic city. It lies on Sainte-Monique hill, between the Bordj Djedid plateau (translated as “New Fort” in Arabic) and the Sainte-Monique convent. Delattre’s excavations took place in the area now located between a modern high school zone and the presidential palace. Determining a more exact location is complicated by the limited excavation methodology of the time and the site’s subsequent abandonment. Delattre provided no detailed documentation—such as plans, sketches, or precise descriptions—and the necropolis is thought to have originally covered a relatively large area.
History
Ancient history
Necropolises of Carthage
The necropolises of Carthage are estimated to have spanned approximately 60 hectares, while suggests that the Punic city itself covered more than 300 hectares. Hélène Bénichou-Safar, in her book published in 1982 and covering research up to 1977, lists over 3,000 tombs excavated over a century on the archaeological site of Carthage. M'hamed Hassine Fantar proposes that this figure might be as high as 3,500. The excavators of the necropolis of the Rabs explored approximately 1,000 burial chambers at this site alone, which were aligned in rows.
History of the so-called "Necropolis of the Rabs"
According to , the Necropolis of the Rabs was in use from the 5th to the 2nd century BC, with peak activity during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. He notes that approximately one-third of the tombs date to the 4th century BC, while two-thirds are from the 3rd century BC. Salah-Eddine Tlatli dates the necropolis on Sainte-Monique hill specifically to the 3rd century BC, while Colette Picard suggests it was active from the 5th to 4th century BC until the destruction of the Punic city after the Third Punic War in 146 BC.
Over time, the necropolises of Carthage evolved, with designated areas allocated for religious colleges, families, or clans, shifting from individual to collective tombs. In the 3rd–2nd century BC, the funerary rites used were cremation and inhumation; the deceased were accompanied in their final resting place by gold jewelry, carved ivories, bronze vases, and Sicilian or Etruscan ceramics. During the Hellenistic period, from the 4th to the 2nd century BC, cremation predominated, with remains preserved in a limestone box. At that time, “there was a restriction of spaces allotted to the dead.”
Due to the richness of the furnishings found and the architecture of the tombs, it is accepted that the necropolis of the Rabs holds the burials of the Carthaginian high society. Colette Picard posits that it may have been reserved for the city’s priests and priestesses. The clergy, drawn from the Punic aristocracy, lacked political authority but included many women among its religious dignitaries. Their roles were primarily ceremonial, involving rituals and sacrifices, as evidenced by a rate schedule from the Punic capital discovered in Marseille in the mid-19th century.
During the Roman period, under the Colonia Iulia Concordia Carthago, the necropolis saw limited use. Alfred Louis Delattre identified a structure in opus reticulatum as a "fanum of Ceres". The presence of Punic-era terracotta figurines dedicated to Demeter has led to speculation about a Temple of Demeter existing there in the early 4th century BC, possibly built to address the destruction of a similar temple during the Sicilian Wars. While Stéphane Gsell rejected this idea, findings such as a stuccoed capital (noted by ) and another architectural element (discovered by a soldier and housed in the Bardo Museum since 1926) have led Gilbert Charles-Picard, Alexandre Lézine, and Naïdé Ferchiou to support the temple hypothesis. mentions a temple that existed from the Punic period to the Roman period.
The necropolis was later looted for its valuable contents. The sarcophagi of a priest and a priestess were disturbed in antiquity, with damage occurring where the marble was thinnest.
Organization and architecture of the tombs of the Necropolis of the Rabs
Access to the chambers is either through wells or dromos-type entrances. Wells, varying in depth, first appeared in Carthage around the 6th century BC. In the Sainte-Monique necropolis, these wells average 12 meters deep, though some reach depths of up to 27 meters. Their depth served multiple purposes: protection against theft, a display of prestige, and possibly religious significance. Notches carved into the well walls provided footholds for those ascending or descending.
The tombs were dug with varying degrees of care and were dug with consideration for the nature of the rock. The ground may consist of rock, compacted earth, or sand. The access bay to the burial chambers, measuring 1.32 meters by 0.63 meters, may have a console sculpted in the rock. The chamber walls were carefully shaped and coated with stucco, occasionally mixed with marble powder. Some chambers included decorative stucco elements, and Alfred Louis Delattre noted the presence of cornices at entrances or within the chambers. In wealthier tombs, such as that of Yada’milk, ceilings may have been lined with wooden paneling made from durable woods sourced from the Kroumirie forests or Cyrenaica. Over time, wells could accommodate multiple burial chambers, such as those for couples, typically measuring 2.20 meters by 2.80 meters with a height of 1.90 meters.
By the time excavations began, any "external monuments" associated with the necropolis had vanished. It is possible that monumental structures, such as mausoleums similar to those at Dougga, Sabratha, or Medracen, once existed, as architectural fragments have been uncovered at nearby sites like Ard el-Khéraïb and Byrsa. Alfred Louis Delattre described a building covering several funeral wells. The city may have had nearby quarries in antiquity; stones could be transported from the quarries of Cape Bon across the Gulf of Tunis, and then shaped on-site.
Burial locations were marked by stones or cippi, sometimes bearing inscriptions to commemorate the deceased. From the 4th century BC, Anthropomorphic stelae, depicting figures in prayerful poses have been identified. Funerary inscriptions, often found in the "aristocratic quarter of the City of the Dead", These epitaphs are sometimes engraved on slabs set into the entrances of the tombs, were typically engraved on slabs sealing tomb entrances or on rectangular stone tablets described as notable examples of Punic calligraphy.
Rediscovery
Early excavation
Between 1878 and 1906, Alfred Louis Delattre excavated several necropolises in Carthage, including the hills of Juno, Byrsa, Douïmès, Bordj Djedid, and Sainte-Monique. During the same period, conducted parallel excavations on parts of the necropolises, amid a competitive dynamic with the White Fathers. Archaeological excavations were often "an excuse for social events."
The Necropolis of the Rabs was identified in 1897, though earlier reports of tombs in the area had come from "stone hunters." Delattre, who discovered the site, excavated it intensively and exclusively between 1898 and 1905 or 1906, working at a rapid pace. The methods used, while consistent with early 20th-century practices, are considered inadequate by modern standards, and little attention was paid to studying the tomb architecture. Delattre assigned workers to multiple areas within a single sector and provided generalized conclusions for each.
The military service made a plan as early as 1898. A partial plan was also published in an issue of the journal in 1904. However, Delattre has been criticized for not creating a comprehensive plan, with some attributing this to his amateur approach. The primary goal of the excavations was to recover funerary artifacts to enhance museum collections, resulting in a significant haul of materials.
Funding for the excavations came from the Academy of Inscriptions and Fine Letters. Delattre periodically updated the academy on his progress and submitted reports, particularly about the sarcophagi, preserving details that might otherwise have been lost. Additional resources were generated through the sale of less significant duplicate items, while many pieces of common pottery were intentionally discarded.
In November 1898, Delattre uncovered a painted marble sarcophagus, followed by a second one in May 1901. On November 25, 1902, at the bottom of a well 12 meters deep, he discovered a sarcophagus of a woman hiding her face with a veil, which contained two bodies, and also that of the priest. A tomb containing two sarcophagi was also excavated in November 1902 but had been violated. The lids had been broken by the thieves but without damaging the faces of the figures. The male sarcophagus bore traces of a long insignia, which Delattre interpreted as a mark of the individual’s status. The female figure in the second sarcophagus appeared elderly, as inferred from her worn teeth. Both sarcophagi were photographed and opened on-site before being transported to the Lavigerie Museum on November 27.
On November 4, 1904, a marble sarcophagus of a priest was discovered, accompanied by an ivory box containing bronze objects. In total, Alfred Louis Delattre discovered thirteen sarcophagi in the necropolis, four of which contained statues and the others "architectural in style."
Legacy, end of excavation, and new studies at the end of the 20th century Alfred Louis Delattre proposed offering one of the sarcophagi to the Louvre Museum, allowing the institution to select from several pieces. The museum’s administration requested two sarcophagi, a proposal accepted by both Delattre and the Tunisian Department of Antiquities and Arts. The Louvre Museum received the works in 1906. A plaster replica was then deposited at the Carthage Museum. At the Lavigerie Museum, the sarcophagi of the priest and priestess were displayed upright in the Punic room, where they attracted significant attention.