The history of Primorye is that of the territory known today as the Russian federal subject of Primorsky Krai (established in 1938), located south of Khabarovsk Krai in the Far Eastern Federal District. It is also the history of the broader territory once referred to by the Russians as "Outer Manchuria" during the time of the Russian Empire.
Overview
Prehistory The territory of Primorye has been inhabited for more than 32,000 years BCE by tribes migrating from other regions of Asia. Since prehistoric times, several cultures have thrived in the region, the most significant being the and .
Middle Ages Over time, the territory was conquered by various empires, shaped by political and military struggles in China and Korea. It was initially taken by the Korean kingdom of Balhae, during which the region was called Shuiaibin. It later fell under the rule of the Khitan Liao dynasty before being integrated into the Jin dynasty. In 1234, Primorye was conquered by the Mongols and came under the domination of the Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty supplanted the Mongols at the end of the 14th century, and in the early 17th century, the Jurchens unified the region. It became part of the Later Jin Dynasty and then the Qing Dynasty, under which the area was named Woji.
1655: Russia The Russians first arrived in the region in 1655, marking the final phase of the Siberian conquest. Along with Kamchatka, Primorye was among the last areas explored and annexed into present-day Russia. This led to a territorial struggle between the Qing Empire and the Tsardom of Russia. In 1689, the Qing Empire formally claimed the territory through the Treaty of Nerchinsk. During the 18th century, French explorers, including the naval officer Jean-François de La Pérouse, mapped the region.
1850s: Western interests In the second half of the 19th century, Europeans, including the British and French, began to take an interest in the Far East, particularly China. The weakened Qing Empire was forced to accept numerous unequal treaties, in which the Russian Empire also took part. As a result, in 1858 and 1860, Russia signed the Treaty of Aigun and the Convention of Peking with China, respectively, allowing the annexation of Outer Manchuria and then Primorye. During the Russian Civil War, the territory became a stronghold for the White Armies and was controlled by the Japanese as part of the Allied intervention in Siberia. The short-lived Provisional Priamurye Government was the final White stronghold in the conflict. In October 1922, the Red Army invaded, capturing Vladivostok on the 25th. Meanwhile, White and Allied troops fled to Japanese-controlled Korea and the Japanese archipelago.
USSR The Soviet period saw the economic and military development of the region. With the collectivization of land in the 1930s, many people emigrated to Primorye, which had large areas of unused agricultural land. Gulag workers also arrived in large numbers, tasked with building the region's infrastructure. In 1938, as China was partially under Japanese control and tensions between the USSR and Japan were at their peak, the Battle of Lake Khasan ended in a Soviet victory. In 1945, Primorye became one of the launching bases for the Red Army's invasion of Manchuria at the end of World War II. With perestroika, Primorye experienced the end of subsidies, followed by the dissolution of the USSR, leading to an economic crisis that triggered a massive exodus of its population to European Russia. However, this trend slowed over time due to the migration of people from the Far North to the south and major cities, including Vladivostok. In 2012, the city hosted the APEC summit and underwent extensive renovations and construction projects.
Prehistory
Paleolithic
Arrival of the first humans
The settlement of Primorye began more than 30,000 years ago when tribes from other parts of Asia, such as Manchuria, settled near the coasts. These early inhabitants were mammoth hunters and gatherers, leading a nomadic lifestyle and hunting in groups. Their hunting strategy involved driving the animal to a cliff, causing it to fall, then finishing it off before harvesting its meat. The oldest known human settlement was found near the village of Ossinovka (in the Mikhailovka district), possibly inhabited between 40,000 and 35,000 years ago. Ossinovka is considered by Soviet archaeologist Alexei Okladnikov as the first Upper Paleolithic complex in Primorye. However, it is assumed that the banks of the Suifen River were populated even earlier, though no evidence has been found to confirm this. Archaeological studies have revealed deep similarities between the archaeological sites of Primorye and those of the Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, and the northeastern part of Hokkaidō.
At that time, Primorye was covered by vast deciduous forests in the lowlands, Siberian pine forests on the slopes, and coniferous taiga in the high mountains, while pine forests predominated in the northernmost part. The climate of the entire territory was relatively mild, resembling the current climate of Korea, and the sea level was about 10 meters higher than it is today. It was in this environment that the first settlements of the Ossinovka culture emerged (from the 38th to the 30th century BCE). Artifacts from this culture include polished stones and axes.
Peak of the last ice age However, during the peak of the last glacial period, the sea level dropped by about 90 to 100 meters compared to the present level, leading to significant climatic changes in the region. Populations from China and Korea settled in the area, while others migrated northward. At this time, most of the territory was covered by birch and other deciduous forests. The mountains were dominated by tundra, with some glaciers on the highest peaks. In the southern part, coniferous forests persisted, while the areas surrounding Lake Khanka were covered with wetlands. Mammoths and other animals were hunted. From this period, the second major cultural complex of Primorye emerged—the Ustinovka culture—radiocarbon dated to between 18,170 (±150) and 10,780 (±50) years ago, though more recent studies suggest its end occurred around 9,000–8,000 years ago. The local populations had contact not only with China and Korea but also with cultures from the Amur Basin, Sakhalin, and Japan, which were accessible at the time due to the lower sea levels.
Transition to the Holocene During the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene (12,000 to 10,000 years ago), the climate in Primorye was drier and slightly colder before warming by about 1 to 2°C above present-day temperatures between 9,300 and 8,000 years ago. At this time, the main settlements were located in river valleys or along their edges, in smaller valleys. More advanced tools began to appear, designed for cutting and processing meat, as well as woodworking and fishing tools. Hunting, river fishing, and gathering remained the only means of food procurement. Regarding fishing, certain sites were occupied seasonally as fishing camps. During this period, mammoths and other large animals disappeared, leading human populations to shift their focus toward deer, wild boars, foxes, and other small animals. Bows and arrows replaced spears, which had become less useful. The forest provided nuts, mushrooms, and other plants for gathering.
Around 9,300 years ago, as temperatures rose, new settlements emerged, often along rivers and lakeshores, marking the transition to a more sedentary way of life. For the first time, pottery was produced in the region. In central Primorye, obsidian was introduced for the first time in tool-making.
Neolithic
Early Neolithic cultures
Between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago, the climate warmed significantly, with winter temperatures averaging 10°C higher than today and summer temperatures around 5°C higher. This warming led to a sea level rise of about 3 meters above the present level. As a result, many sites previously believed to date from the Paleolithic were submerged, forcing populations to migrate inland and triggering social changes. Along the coast, bays and lagoons formed, creating an environment favorable for fishing, shellfish gathering, and marine hunting. It was within this setting that three Neolithic cultures emerged simultaneously in Primorye. The culture developed around the Peter the Great Gulf, while the Rudnaya culture spread from Lake Khanka to the eastern coast in the central and southern regions. The little-known Vetka culture, which has been minimally studied, evolved in the central and north-central parts, along the western slopes of the Sikhote-Alin mountain range.
The Rudnaya culture emerged in the mid-6th millennium BCE (around 7,500 years ago), spanning from Lake Khanka to the Sea of Japan, near Rudnaya Pristan and the Lazovsky District. Its most significant archaeological site is the Devil's Gate Cave. Genetic studies indicate that the people of this culture were closely related to the Ulch, Oroqen, and Hezhen—Tungusic-speaking ethnic groups from the Amur River region. This culture disappeared in the 5th millennium BCE.
The second major Neolithic culture in Primorye was the Boisman culture, which appeared around 6,000 years ago (4th millennium BCE) in southern Primorye. It was named after Boisman Bay in the Khasan District, where one of its sites was discovered. The culture was characterized by small coastal villages with a few dwellings. Its people were fishermen, catching fish in both coastal lagoons and the open sea during the summer. At the Boisman I and II sites (south of Slavyanka), archaeologists discovered the oldest known burials in Primorye, along with remains of dwellings. Genetic analysis of these burials revealed that the Boisman people had genetic traits halfway between the populations of Mongolia and Japan during the Jōmon period. Additionally, they had domesticated dogs.
Zaissanovka culture
The was the most significant Neolithic culture in Primorye. It belonged to the Late Neolithic period, spanning from the 3rd millennium BCE to the 1st millennium BCE. It covered a vast area from the Terney District to modern-day border regions in China and Korea, encompassing the entire southern half of Primorye. The culture was named after the village of Zaissanovka in the Khasan District, where the Gladkaia site—the first site associated with this culture—was discovered. The Zaissanovka culture emerged during a period of climate cooling that disrupted existing cultures, leading to their fusion into a single entity. This multiethnic origin allowed the Zaissanovites to thrive in diverse environments, including coastlines, forests, plains, and mountains. The culture is linked to the arrival of agricultural populations who had migrated from northern Korea due to the degradation of Korea's ecosystem. It is also associated with a significant increase in the number and size of villages.
The earliest evidence of this culture dates back approximately 5,000 years, with the oldest known site being Kroounovka 1, located in the . Hunting was the primary food source, as evidenced by the numerous hunting tools and animal bones found. Fishing was also essential along the coast, along with gathering, including the collection of shellfish.
However, the most significant revolution brought by this culture was the introduction of agriculture to Primorye, particularly in the Khanka and Suifen plains. This transformation was accompanied by animal domestication, particularly of dogs, bred for their meat. The development of craftsmanship also advanced, with more refined clothing made from animal hides, ornamental objects, and woven baskets for gathering. The dwellings of this period were wooden, with one section serving as living quarters and the other designated for animals and craftsmanship.