The literature of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was characterized by a strong renewal of entertainment literature in vernacular Chinese, including theatre, tales, short stories, and novels. Meanwhile, some previously practiced genres became more stagnant and unchanging.
In the theatre, chuanqi, a style of the Southern tradition, was characterized by its lengthy plays, often consisting of several dozen "acts". This style has gained popularity among the public. One of the most well-known plays in this style was The Peony Pavilion, written by Tang Xianzu. During the 16th century, chuanqi gave rise to kunqu, also known as Kunshan opera, which is considered to be the oldest form of Chinese opera still performed today. Another style, zaju, originated in the Northern tradition and flourished during the Yuan dynasty. It remains popular among the court and scholars, and has been influenced by the Southern theatre style.
In the genre of the novel, four extraordinary masterpieces were created: Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, and Jin Ping Mei.
Early period: persecution, censorship, and Confucian orthodoxy
During the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), writers enjoyed a certain level of freedom due to the Mongols' lack of interest in literary affairs. This changed drastically with the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368. The first Ming emperor, the Hongwu Emperor (), implemented a policy of terror against his enemies, particularly scholars. Scholars were now forbidden from refusing to serve the imperial power, under penalty of death. This policy also affected scholars who were part of his entourage, such as Liu Ji (1311–1375), who was dismissed, and Song Lian, who was banished. Song Lian edited the official History of Yuan, reducing literature to writings inspired by the study of the Classics. The most notable case was that of Gao Qi, a poet from Suzhou who was sentenced to death in 1374. This led to the disappearance of a whole generation of artists and writers from Suzhou. The Hongwu Emperor implemented an educational policy based on the Confucian classics and the Four Books, interpreting Confucian morality and virtues in a strict and orthodox manner. Scholars were expected to show strict obedience to the sovereign. The intellectuals of Suzhou, a city that had long been under the control of the Hongwu Emperor's rival Zhang Shicheng, posed a threat to this policy of strict obedience. Writers began to practice self-censorship. For example, Qu You initially only distributed his collection of stories, New Stories After Snuffing the Lamp, in manuscript form to a restricted circle. It was not until around 1400 that the work was finally printed, but it was banned in 1442 due to its veiled criticism of the Ming dynasty and Confucian values. The printing of books facilitated their circulation, which caught the attention of the Ming government and led to increased censorship. In 1442, the director of the Imperial University, Li Shimian (), requested a ban on certain writings, including Qu You's collection, which he had discovered in the hands of his students. He also requested sanctions against those who printed or sold the work. At the time, there were no laws in place to regulate these professions or this type of work. It was not until a revised edition of the Qing code in 1740 that measures were put in place against printed works of pornographic fiction and those involved in their production and distribution.
The Yongle Emperor () rose to power through usurpation and worked to exclude other members of the imperial family from political responsibilities. Many of these family members turned to pursuits such as literature. Some even became renowned writers, including playwrights Zhu Quan (1378–1448) and Zhu Youdun (1379–1439). The main theme of Zhu Youdun's plays was loyalty to the emperor, and both authors praised Confucian values. The government also took a particular interest in the baguwen, or "eight-legged essay", which was used for the imperial examinations. These compositions were expected to demonstrate strict adherence to Confucian orthodoxy, as defined by the Song thinker Zhu Xi (1130–1200). Additionally, the Yongle Emperor was a major proponent of publishing enterprises, commissioning collections of Confucian texts such as the Xingli daquan (), the Wujing daquan (), and the Sishu daquan (). These texts were then included in the official program for candidates taking the examinations.
1450–1520
After the death of the Yongle Emperor, the threat from the Mongols increased. In 1449, the Ming army suffered a defeat during the Battle of Tumu, resulting in the capture of Emperor Yingzong (). This led to a period of political instability until the young son of Emperor Yingzong, the Chenghua Emperor (), ascended the throne. During this period of political and military instability, scholars were able to express criticisms of the government more freely, although this still carried risks, as they could face corporal punishment (known as tingzhang ) or exile for their remonstrances. Despite this, there was a trend towards a relaxation of government control over scholars. The emperors also played a significant role in promoting popular and dramatic culture, with many of them being fond of popular songs and tunes sung in theatres. This made these forms of entertainment popular among the entire intellectual elite, making this period a golden age for sanqu (a variant of qu).
The eight-legged essay was a necessary genre for any scholar seeking to establish a successful career and showcase their literary prowess. Despite its rigid structure, it was still possible to demonstrate talent within it. One of the most renowned figures in this field was Wang Ao (1450–1524), who achieved first place in both provincial and capital-level examinations. He was known for his ability to adhere to formal conventions while also incorporating elegance and originality in his writing. The significance of this genre led to criticism, with Wang Ao himself being a prominent voice in advocating for the inclusion of other literary genres in the examinations, in order to attract scholars with diverse abilities. His suggestions were disregarded at the time. During the reign of the Chenghua Emperor, there was a notable increase in the demand for anthologies of examination essays. The ultimate achievement for a scholar was to be accepted into the prestigious Hanlin Academy, which was reserved for the most talented individuals. Li Dongyang (1447–1516), the highest-ranking official in the academy, was an expert in the literary trends of his time and played a significant role in supporting and promoting younger scholars.
Li Dongyang's prominent position was not without its difficulties. He faced opposition from the "Earlier Seven Masters of the Ming", a group associated with the fugu (; 'revive antiquity') movement. This group, with the exception of one member, was entirely from the North and was active in the Ming capital Beijing from 1496 to 1505. They had close ties with Li Mengyang (1475–1530), the main figure of the movement. Their main focus was revitalizing poetry, but they also had a general interest in political issues. Li Mengyang's criticism of the court led to multiple imprisonments and even death sentences, as the powerful eunuch Liu Jin used his influence to silence dissent, but not all criticism of the government was as direct. Two other members of the Seven Masters, Kang Hai (1475–1541) and Wang Jiusi (1468–1551), were part of the Hanlin Academy and used their influence to prevent Li Mengyang's execution. They were also known for writing plays that were critical of the political climate at the time.
Suzhou experienced a revival of its cultural significance as evidenced by the rise of scholars like Wang Ao, but it was not until the early 16th century, when the Jiangnan region became the main economic hub of China, that Suzhou regained its status as a cultural center. This was largely due to the efforts of urban merchants. In terms of culture, the scholars of the region shifted their focus away from administrative careers and instead made a living through the sale of paintings, calligraphy, and poetry—three activities that were closely intertwined in the practice of scholars at the time. Money itself became a popular subject in poetry, a new development. Some of the most notable scholars from Suzhou during this period were Shen Zhou (1427–1509), Zhu Yunming (1460–1526), Wen Zhengming (1470–1559), and Tang Yin (1470–1524), who were primarily known for their skills in painting and calligraphy.
From 1520 to the early 1570s Following the death of the heirless Zhengde Emperor (), his cousin Zhu Houcong ascended the throne at the age of fourteen as the Jiajing Emperor and reigning from 1521 to 1566. The Jiajing Emperor was known for his autocratic personality and lack of interest in governing the empire, resulting in the court eunuchs gaining effective power. This led to some scholars speaking out against the Emperor, with Hai Rui being one of the most well-known cases. He was imprisoned and tortured for his remonstrances, but later became a respected literary figure. During the Great Rites Controversy, over a hundred scholars were beaten, resulting in some deaths. One of the survivors, Yang Shen, was exiled to Yunnan where he was able to showcase his literary talents through a wide range of works. He gained fame throughout the empire, particularly for his poetic correspondence with his wife, Huang E, who became known as the greatest poetess of the Ming dynasty.
From the mid-16th century onwards, there was a growing effort among scholars to re-evaluate the role of women in literature, which continued until the end of the Ming dynasty. During this time, previously overlooked texts began to resurface, such as the palindrome attributed to Su Hui, a 4th-century poet. Anthologies of women's literature were also compiled, starting in the 1550s with Tian Yiheng's () Shi nüshi (Female Talents in Poetry, 1557), which featured works by thirty-six Ming poetesses. As the demand for women's literature grew, some wives of scholars also became writers, such as the poet Shen Yixiu (), who later became an editor for one of these anthologies in 1636. Some of the texts attributed to women may have been forged by the editors to meet this demand. On the other hand, some fictional stories were based on real events, such as the story of Li Yuying (, 1506–after 1522) told by Feng Menglong (1574–1646). Li's two erotic poems resulted in a death sentence, but she was ultimately pardoned by the Jiajing Emperor. This story can be found in official archives.
During this period, the novel emerged as a popular genre, drawing from earlier sources in the vernacular and circulating among storytellers. Three notable works from this time include the oldest known edition of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms''' from 1522, Water Margin which was printed around 1550, and Journey to the West which was published during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor. Scholars during this time also had a taste for rewriting earlier literary sources, not just limited to women's or popular literature, but also seen in the theatre. Li Kaixian was a prime example of this, as he edited an anthology of plays from the Yuan dynasty (in the form of zaju) and also wrote a chuanqi (a southern theatrical form) called Baojian ji (), which was inspired by a passage from Water Margin.
In the field of poetry, the fugu school saw a resurgence in the 1550s with the emergence of the "Latter Seven Masters", led by Li Panlong. Li was most renowned for his collections of Tang poetry. Following his died in 1570, the most prominent member of the Seven Masters was Wang Shizhen. His diverse poetic works and prose extend beyond the boundaries of the fugu movement, making him more comparable to Yang Shen.
Publishing during the Wanli era (1573–1620)