Since its inception, Zoroastrianism has recognized total spiritual equality between women and men. The spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism, the eponymous Zoroaster, explicitly addressed both men and women, and affirmed that individuals of either gender could be righteous and could achieve salvation, an apparent innovation compared to the preceding polytheistic Iranian faiths.
Evidence suggests women could occupy priestly roles in early Zoroastrianism, though the priesthood has for most of history been exclusive to men, who have thus historically dominated religious doctrine and decision-making. Although not distinguished from men in a spiritual sense, Zoroastrian texts written after the oldest parts of the sacred Avesta (such as the Vendidad) introduced additional teachings and restrictions regarding women, particularly concerning ritual purity. In the medieval period, Zoroastrian theology and religious practice became increasingly male-oriented and conservative, to the detriment of women, probably reflecting changing social attitudes of the time. The degree to which later Zoroastrians accepted and weighted teachings and regulations for women that postdate Zoroaster himself varies.
Women in the Avesta
Equality The Avesta advocates spiritual gender equality and recognizes women as "men's partners in the common struggle against evil", with religious and moral agency equal to men. An egalitarian message is further apparent through the use of inclusive formulae in various passages. The Yasna Haptanghaiti collocates the words nar- (man) and nāirī- (woman) four times, twice in the expression nā vā nāirī vā ("a man or a woman") and twice in the form narąmcā nāirinąmcā ("of men and women"). The Gathas also combine the two, at points referencing iθā ... narō aθā jə̄naiiō ("thus ... men, so also women"). In FrD.3, a Younger Avestan fragment, both men and women are cautioned: "He has not won anything who has not won (anything) for his soul. She has not won anything who has not won (anything) for her soul." Avestan texts frequently praise and venerate righteous adherents of the faith, regardless of gender, for instance in Y. 39.2 ("and we worship now the souls of truthful men and women, wherever they may have been born") and Y. 37.3 ("we worship in the choices of the truthful ones—of men and of women").
Zoroastrians are initiated through investiture of the sedreh (ritual shirt) and kushti (ritual girdle), a ceremony that is undertaken for both boys and girls. The Vendidad declares that it is sinful for a man or woman older than 15 to not wear the sedreh. It is clear in the Avesta that women, like men, can receive religious education. Y. 26.7 refers to the choices "of teachers, of students—male [and] female". Vr. 3.4 and Gāh 4.9 mention "well educated" women. The Hērbedestān states that those eligible to receive education for aθauruna ("priestly service") include both the lady (nāirikā-) and lord of the house (nmānō.paiti-), the one chosen being the one with the "highest esteem for truth" and who is the one less needed to manage the household. Like men, women are expected to spread Zoroastrian teachings: Y. 35.6 states that "a man or a woman" who "knows what is real" and "what is really good" should "make this known to those who will thus practice it". The Avesta does not exclude women from participating in rituals or sacrificial rites. Y. 41.2 endorses rule by both men and women: "May a good ruler, a man or a woman, rule us, in both existences"; women are thus presented as capable of being good leaders in both a material and spiritual sense.
Differential treatment Some parts of the Avesta emphasize the ritual impurity experienced by women during menstruation (see the "Purity and menstruation" section below), and certain regulations and rituals that need to be followed during menstruation. A woman who experienced a stillbirth is described as especially impure in the Vendidad, which states that the community must "build and enclosure" for her where she is to remain for three nights, during which she should wash her body and clothes with cow urine and water by the nine holes". She is then to be secluded for a further nine nights before she can re-enter society. Some religious scholars have criticized such rituals as "humiliating" and as causing "psychological distress". Menstruation-related purity theology is not found in the Gathas, the oldest parts of the Avesta (and the only parts attributed to Zoroaster himself). The Vendidad also includes some purity laws specific to men, for example in the event of nocturnal emission; men are in that case also implored to undergo ritual purification.
Except for purity laws, the only Avestan passage that references differential treatment of women and men is also in the Vendidad. Vendidad 7.41-22 stipulates that a physician healing a patient can charge more money for healing men than for healing women.
Gendered concepts of the divine
Divinities
The supreme deity of Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda, is an explicitly male figure and is referenced with masculine language. Ahura Mazda's first act is stated to have been to bring into being the Amesha Spentas, six lesser divinities (yazatas) that aid in the struggle against evil. These indicate some sort of equality between the masculine and the feminine in the cosmology, since three are male and three are female. These divinities never act as earthly men and women, since they do not marry and do not produce further offspring. Each Amesha Spenta protects one part of the material world against Angra Mainyu. Worship of all Amesha Spentas is encouraged in the Zoroastrian scriptures.
There is no specific hierarchy among the Amesha Spentas in the original scriptures, though the masculine divinities appear more frequently in Younger Avestan listings. There is evidence that Zoroastrian theology grew more conservative and male-oriented in the medieval Middle Persian/Pahlavi texts. Female divinities appear less frequently in these and in one Middle Persian classification of cosmic elements, those associated with the masculine (sky, metal, wind, and fire) appear before those associated with the feminine (water, earth, and plants). Middle Persian literature likewise appears to assign the protection of men to the masculine divinities and the protection of women to the feminine ones.
The feminine Zoroastrian divinities are neither passive nor defined by traditional female social roles. Something akin to such a role only applies to one of the divinities, Spenta Armaiti, who is represented as a pious and obedient daughter of Ahura Mazda, a "mother of all" and a "queen of paradise" who purifies the wombs of women after birth and is therefore critical to the continued existence of humanity. The Amesha Spenta associated with water, Haurvatat, is often described with epithets such as sūrā ("strong") and anāhitā ("undefiled") and is credited with bestowing fertility on both women and men, and increasing fields, crops, herds, and possessions. As Anahita, Haurvatat has historically also been venerated as a warrior who brought victory to Iran and its soldiers. She was likened to a "Persian Artemis" in Parthian (247 BCE–224 CE) times and her cult gained special recognition in the Sasanian period (224–651). Sasanian kings were crowned in Anahita's temple in Istakhr and the heads of defeated enemies were reportedly sent to this temple.
Demons A majority of demons (daevas) in Zoroastrian texts are male, though female demons also appear. Pollution of dead matter is for instance attributed to the female Nasu and the beginning of menstruation is the fault of the female Jahi. In Middle Persian texts, Jahu came to personify the "pollution of menstruation" and be regarded as the embodiment of "uncontrolled female sexuality" and thus the opponent of all virtuous women. Female demons are generally depicted as unrestrained, deceptive, and disobedient.
Women in Zoroastrian history
Ancient history
Zoroastrianism was founded by the eponymous religious reformer Zoroaster, who was born into a polytheistic culture in ancient Iran. The timeframe of Zoroaster's life and the religion's foundation is disputed, with estimates varying wildly from around 2000 BCE to around 500 BCE. Zoroastrianism was established as the main religion of modern-day Iran and Iraq, a role Zoroastrianism maintained until the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 CE and the rise of Islam.
Zoroastrianism was significantly more gender-inclusive in its teachings than the earlier polytheistic religions practiced in Iran. One prominent example is Zoroaster's teachings concerning the afterlife. Whereas paradise had previously been a domain for men with the means of achieving it, Zoroaster proclaimed: "man or woman ... whomever I shall impel to your invocation, with all these shall I cross the Bridge of the Separator". The promise of salvation regardless of gender, and Zoroaster explicitly addressing "man and woman" shows that Zoroastrianism recognized an equality between men and women in a religious sense since its inception, though they may occupy different social roles. Zoroastrian veneration extended to the fravashi (spirits) of both great men and women; the inclusion of women appears to have been a specific and new Zoroastrian conception. The Fravardin Yasht of the Avesta lists numerous fravashi worthy of veneration, including many women. The existence of both righteous men and women, and affirmation that women could serve as good rulers, is presented in Zoroaster's teachings.
Because Ahura Mazda was described as having created both men and women to fight against evil, the initial stages of Zoroastrianism appears to have reflected some egalitarian ideals. Such ideals were not completely reflected in everyday religious practice or in doctrine, since ancient Iran was a male-dominated society and continued to be so as Zoroastrianism flourished. The Zoroastrian priesthood appears to have been all-male since the earliest times. There is however some evidence that women under certain circumstances were considered fit to officiate minor priestly duties or otherwise serve as religious functionaries. A handful of sources prove that the Zoroastrian cult of Anahita had priestesses.
In the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE), noble women were educated, participated in ceremonies, and exercised some political power. Women independently managed and owned estates throughout the empire. Records establish that owners of the estates, both male and female, gave equal rations to both male and female workers. Female workers who headed work crews or were new mothers were given special rations. Achaemenid kings practiced marriage to relatives and polygamy, but it is unclear if these practices were also common among the general Zoroastrian population. Greek sources from the Hellenistic period attribute such practices to Iranians in general. There are no passages in the sacred Zoroastrian texts that directly address polygamy.
Sasanian Empire
In the Sasanian Empire, Zoroastrianism was for the first time institutionalized as the official state religion. Sasanian Zoroastrianism was predominantly patriarchal. The empire organized a powerful and official priesthood with hereditary offices, though it was composed exclusively of men. Men enjoyed considerable social advantages over women in the Sasanian Empire.
These social structures were not necessarily Zoroastrian per se and the generally recognized equal spiritual standing of women in Zoroastrianism must be distinguished from their lesser standing in the Sasanian legal system. Sasanian law and domestic politics was however justified by moral standards established by the priesthood through their interpretation of the sacred Zoroastrian texts.