Coinage from Maximinus Thrax to Aemilianus is understood as the set of coins issued by Rome during the reigns of more than a dozen emperors of the first part of the period called military anarchy, succeeding Severus Alexander (last of the Severan dynasty), from 235 to 253: Maximinus Thrax (235–238), Gordian I (238), Gordian II (238), Pupienus (238), Balbinus (238), Gordian III (238–244), Philip the Arab (244–249), Decius with his sons Herennius Etruscus and Hostilian (249–251), Trebonianus Gallus with his son Volusianus (251–253), and finally Aemilianus (253).
Historical context
When Alexander Severus (the last heir of the Severan dynasty) was killed at the instigation of General Maximinus Thrax, he was succeeded by the latter in 235. Three years later, Maximinus was killed by his own troops, Legio II Parthica, encamped near Aquileia in May 238. He was succeeded in a few months by Gordian I (who died by suicide), Gordian II (who died in battle), Pupienus and Balbinus (two senators slaughtered by the Praetorian Guard), and finally, Gordian III, who reigned until 244 but was probably assassinated at the behest of the Praetorian prefect, Philip the Arab. Philip, who succeeded Gordian on the imperial throne, fell in battle against his rival Decius in 249, who in turn died along with his son Herennius Etruscus, who would succeed him, in the battle of Abrittus against the Goths in 251.
Decius was succeeded by Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus, who associated with the throne first Decius' youngest son, Hostilianus, (in 251), and then his son, Volusianus. The latter also perished in battle at the hands of soldiers at the instigation of the future emperor Aemilianus. Aemilianus did not last more than three months, also dying at the hands of his own soldiers near Spoleto.
Maximinus Thrax
Maximinus Thrax was the first barbarian to attain the imperial purple, thanks to the consent of the legions, having been born without Roman citizenship, and without being a senator. He was also the first emperor never to have set foot in Rome, as he spent his three-year reign engaged in military campaigns; and the first emperor-soldier of the third century. He died near Aquileia following a sedition of his troops. +Imperial titleNumber of timesDateTribunicia potestas4 yearsFirst in March 20, 235; then renovated each year at December 10. Consulonceyear 236.Victory titlesGermanicus Maximus in 235, Dacicus Maximus in 236/7, and Sarmaticus maximus in 237.Imperator6 timesfirst at the time of the assumption of imperial power on March 20, 235, then again in 235 (2nd time) and 237 (3rd to 6th time).Other titlesPontifex Maximus, Pater Patriae, Pius, and Felix in 235.
Main themes
Maximinus, his son Caesar and his wife Paulina
Maximinus was acclaimed Imperator, according to the version in the Historia Augusta, only after Alexander was killed. It was the first time this occurred for a military man, not yet a senator, moreover without any decree of the senate. He was also given as a colleague in the empire, his son Gaius Julius Verus Maximus, giving him the title princeps iuventutis ("prince of youth"). At the same time, his deceased wife, Caecilia Paulina, was deified. The choice of legionaries was later also confirmed by the Praetorian Guard and ratified by the Roman Senate, which, however, frowned upon an emperor of barbarian origin.
+Maximinus and his son CaesarPictureValueObverseReverseDateWeight and diameterCatalogdenariusIVL VERVS MAXIMVS CAES, head toward right, drapery on shouldersPietas AVG, a lituus, a knife, a jug, a simpulum and a sprinklerminted in 235/2383.06 gramsRIC Maximinus Trax, IVb, 1; BMCRE 118; RSC 1.denariusDIVA PAVLINA, head covered with a veil toward right, draped over shouldersCONSECRATIO, a peacock in front with head toward the left and tail spreadminted in 2353.36 gramsRIC Maximinus Trax, IV 1; BMCRE 135 (Maximinus); RSC 1.
Military campaigns against Germans and Sarmatians (235-237)
The pressure of the barbarians along the northern frontiers and the simultaneous pressure of the Sasanians in the East had spread the feeling that the empire was encircled by its enemies. The tools of traditional diplomacy, used since the time of Augustus and based on the threat of using force and the fomenting of internal dissensions among the various hostile tribes to keep them engaged against each other, now showed little effect.
Immediate recourse to force was necessary, deploying tactically superior armies capable of intercepting every possible avenue of invasion by the barbarians as quickly as possible; however, the strategy was made difficult by having to garrison immense stretches of frontier with mostly sparse military contingents.
To this end between 235 and 236 the emperor conducted his first campaign against the Germanic federation of Alemanni, using Mogontiacum as his "headquarters" and crossing the imperial borders in the Taunus area. Maximinus believed that it was a priority of the empire to wage "anti-Germanic" warfare, he continued to fight the Alemanni, succeeding not only in repelling their incursions along the Limes Germanicus but also in penetrating Germania. The Roman senate honored him with the title Germanicus Maximus, and coins celebrated his Salus Augusta and Pax Augusti titles.
He went, then, to Pannonia, at Sirmium, for the winter of 235/236 and led new campaigns against the Iazyges Sarmatians of the Tisza plain, who had tried to cross the Danube after about fifty years of peace along their frontiers, and the neighboring Quadians (as some inscriptions found in the Brigetio area seem to testify). He had a dream: that of emulating Marcus Aurelius and conquering free Greater Germania. His headquarters, placed at Sirmium, were in the center of the Pannonia Inferior and Dacia front. Thus the Historia Augusta reports:
+Military campaigns in the northPictureValueObverseReverseDateWeight and diameterCatalogdenariusIMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG, head toward right with laurel, drapery on shouldersVICT-ORI-A AVG, Victory walking to the left, holding a crown and a palm23520 mm, 3.16 gramsRIC Maximinus Trax, IV 16; BMCRE 25–6 var.; RSC 99.denariusIMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG, head toward right with laurel, drapery on shouldersPAX AUGUSTI, goddess Pax standing facing left, holding an olive branch and a scepter askew23620 mm, 2.95 gramsRIC Maximinus Trax, IV 12; RSC 31a.sestertius MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG GERM, head toward right with laurel, drapery on shouldersVICTO-RIA GERMANICA, S(enatus) C(consultum) on the sides, Victory standing to the left, holding a crown and a palm; a prisoner on the left at her feet23628 mm, 18.44 gramsRIC Maximinus Trax, IV 90; BMCRE 194; Cohen 109.sestertiusMAXIMINVS PIVS AVG GERM, head toward right with laurel, drapery on shouldersSALVS AVGVSTI, the goddess Salus seated toward the left, holding a patera from which a serpent feeds, rising from an altar to the left; S(enatus) C(consultum) in exergue236 (mint of ancient Rome, 3rd issue)30 mm, 21.53 gramsRIC Maximinus Trax, IV 85; BMCRE 175–6; Banti 24.denariusMAXIMINVS PIVS AVG GERM, head toward right with laurel, drapery on shouldersP M TR P III COS P P, Emperor Maximinus Thrax standing between two legionary banners, raising his right hand and holding a scepter2373.08 gramsRIC Maximinus Trax, IV 5; BMCRE 161; RSC 64.sestertiusMAXIMINVS PIVS AVG GERM, head toward right with laurel, drapery on shouldersP M TR P IIII COS P P, Emperor Maximinus Thrax standing between two legionary banners, raising his right hand and holding a scepter23821.19 gramsRIC Maximinus Trax, 40; Pink III, pg. 21; cf. Banti 19/20 (obv./rev.); BMCRE 221; Cohen 71.
Army loyalty, donativum and congiarium to provincials
Once rebellion broke out in Africa against Maximinus Thrax, Gordian I, hastened to send numerous messages to those whom he considered the wealthiest citizens of Rome, as well as to the Senate and people of Rome itself, promising great clemency for those who cooperated; to the soldiers (Praetorian Guard and Legio II Parthica), a donativum was distributed; to the people of Rome a new distribution of money. Maximinus did the same, especially to the troops still loyal to him and the provincials. +Maximinus and the army: donativumPictureValueObverseReverseDateWeight and diameterCatalogdenariusIMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG, laureate head of Maximinus Thrax toward right, bust with cuirassFIDES MILITVM, Fides standing facing left, holding a vexillum resting on the ground in each of her hands23620 mm, 3.17 gramsRIC IV 7a; RSC 7a.sestertiusIMP MAXIMINVS PIVS AVG, laureate head of Maximinus Thrax toward right, bust with cuirassLIB-ERALITAS AVG, Maximinus Thrax, sitting on a platform in the center, facing left; two soldiers with spears behind him, the goddess Liberalitas standing to the left, holding an abacus and a cornucopia; citizens climbing the steps of the platform where five soldiers with spears are positioned at his feet23627 mm, 15.00 gramsRIC IV 48.
First two Gordians (238)
Growing general discontent towards Emperor Maximinus Thrax's rule culminated in the rebellion in Africa in March 238. Gordian I, prompted by popular clamor, assumed the post and the cognomen Africanus on March 22. Given his advanced age, he insisted that his son, Mark Antony Gordianus (Gordian II), be associated with him. The Senate confirmed Gordian as the new emperor along with his son, and his nephew Gordian III was promised the praetorship, consulship, and the title of Caesar, while Maximinus and his son were proclaimed "public enemies," and most of the provinces sided with Gordian I, except for a few cities still loyal to Maximinus.
The reign of the first two Gordians was short-lived, as the governor of Numidia, Capelianus, who remained loyal to Maximinus Thrax, invaded the province of Africa and headed for Carthage. Here, Gordian II was defeated and killed in the battle of Carthage. Following the death of his son, Gordian I committed suicide, hanging himself with a girdle. They had reigned for only twenty days.
Coinage of the two Gordians +Gordian I and IIPictureValueObverseReverseDateWeight and diameterCatalogsestertiusIMP CAES M ANT GORDIANVS AFR AVG, head toward right with laurel on head, drapery on shouldersVICTORIA AV-GG(ustorum), S C on either side, Victory advancing to the left, holding a crown in her right hand and a palm in her leftminted in 23821.41 gramsRIC Gordianus, IV 12; Pink III, pg. 23; Banti 8; BMCRE 15; Cohen 14.sestertiusIMP CAES M ANT GORDIANVS AFR AVG, head toward right with laurel on head, drapery on shouldersVIRTVS AVGG, S C at the sides, Virtus standing to the left, holding a shield resting on the ground in the right and a spear turned toward the ground in the leftminted in 23820.21 gramsRIC Gordianus, IV 8; Pink III, pg. 23; Banti 7; BMCRE 31; Cohen 15.
Pupienus and Balbinus (238)