Many religions have expressed positions on what is acceptable to consume as a means of intoxication for spiritual, pleasure, or medicinal purposes. Psychoactive substances may also play a significant part in the development of religion and religious views as well as in rituals. The most common drugs in the historical religions are cannabis and alcohol.
Neolithic
In the 2005 book Inside the Neolithic Mind, the authors, archaeologists David Lewis-Williams and David Pearce argue that hallucinogenic drugs formed the basis of Neolithic religion and rock art.
Ancient Greece
Some scholars have suggested that Ancient Greek mystery religions employed entheogens, such as the ergot-spiked Kykeon central to the Eleusinian Mysteries, which contained LSD-like compounds to induce a trance or dream state. Research conducted by John R. Hale, Jelle Zeilinga de Boer, Jeffrey P. Chanton and Henry A. Spiller suggests that the prophecies of the Delphic Oracle were uttered by Priestesses under the influence of ethylene gas exuded from the ground.Hale, J. R., de Boer, J. Z., Chanton, J. P., & Spiller, H. A. (2003). Questioning the Delphic Oracle. Scientific American, 289 (2), 66–73
Ancient Mesoamerica
Archaeological, ethnohistorical, and ethnographic data show that Mesoamerican cultures used psychedelic substances in therapeutic and religious rituals. The ancient Aztecs used a variety of entheogenic plants and animals within their society, including ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa), teonanácatl (Psilocybe spp.), and peyotl (Lophophora williamsii). Goals for the usage of entheogenics by the Maya were spiritual healing, wisdom gain, and religious ceremonies. The effects of psychedelic plants during religious rituals is believed to have had an impact on the development and creation of statues, and sacred images. Similar entheogenic practices also appear in the precolonial Caribbean, where evidence from eastern Puerto Rico (c. A.D. 1150–1250) demonstrates that Anadenanthera peregrina seeds were processed into cohoba snuff, a substance associated with ritual use, healing practices, and the diagnosis of illness through interactions with supernatural entities.
Hinduism
Soma Hinduism has a history of psychedelic usage going back to the Vedic period. The oldest scriptures of Hinduism such as Rigveda (1500 BCE), mention ritualistic consumption of a divine psychedelic known as soma. There are many theories about the recipe of Soma. Non-Indian researchers have proposed candidates including Amanita muscaria, Psilocybe cubensis, Peganum harmala and Ephedra sinica. According to recent philological and archaeological studies, and in addition, direct preparation instructions confirm in the Rig Vedic Hymns (Vedic period) Ancient Soma most likely consisted of poppy, Phaedra/Ephedra and Cannabis.Victor Sarianidi, Viktor Sarianidi in The PBS Documentary The Story of India
In the Vedas, the same word soma is used for the drink, the plant, and its deity. Drinking soma produces immortality (Amrita, Rigveda 8.48.3). Indra and Agni are portrayed as consuming soma in copious quantities. According to Hymn 1.32 of the Rigveda, Indra drank large amounts of Soma in his fight with the serpent demon Vritra. The consumption of Soma by human beings is well attested in Vedic rituals.
The Rigveda (8.48.3) says:
Ralph T.H. Griffith translates this as:
Cannabis The plant Cannabis is also mentioned in the Atharvaveda-Samhita (1200 BCE) and Puranas () as one of the five holy plants.
The Atharvaveda 11.6.15:
'भङ्ग' (bhang) refers to the cannabis plant.
Datura The hallucinogenic Datura plant has also been used in Ayurvedic contexts and are often used to adorn the Lingam in many Shiva temples and festivals like Navarathri. The plant goes through a detoxification process to remove the psychoactive elements when utilized in standard Ayurveda practice. In the Vamana Purana, it is mentioned that the Datura flower appeared from the chest of Shiva and offering it the will remove evil, suffering and wrongdoings. There are also Sadhus who are worshipers of Shiva and sometimes smoke the leaves and seeds of Datura plant, though is done with caution because it can be poisonous and cause very vivid hallucinations (delirium).
Buddhism
In Buddhism the Right View ( / ) can also be translated as "right perspective", "right outlook" or "right understanding", is the right way of looking at life, nature, and the world as they really are for us. It is to understand how our reality works. It acts as the reasoning with which someone starts practicing the path. It explains the reasons for our human existence, suffering, sickness, aging, death, the existence of greed, hatred, and delusion. Right view gives direction and efficacy to the other seven path factors. It begins with concepts and propositional knowledge, but through the practice of right concentration, it gradually becomes transmuted into wisdom, which can eradicate the fetters of the mind. An understanding of right view will inspire the person to lead a virtuous life in line with right view. In the Pāli and Chinese canons, it is explained thus:
Right livelihood Right livelihood (samyag-ājīva / sammā-ājīva). This means that practitioners ought not to engage in trades or occupations which, either directly or indirectly, result in harm for other living beings. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained thus:
More concretely today interpretations include "work and career need to be integrated into life as a Buddhist,"Right Livelihood, The Buddhist Centre: a triratna buddhist community space it is also an ethical livelihood, "wealth obtained through rightful means" (Bhikku Basnagoda Rahula) – that means being honest and ethical in business dealings, not to cheat, lie or steal.Buddhism and Wealth: Defining 'Right Livelihood', Huff Post, 16 March 2011 As people are spending most of their time at work, it's important to assess how our work affects our mind and heart. So important questions include "How can work become meaningful? How can it be a support, not a hindrance, to spiritual practice a place to deepen our awareness and kindness?"
The five types of businesses that should not be undertaken:
Business in weapons: trading in all kinds of weapons and instruments for killing. Business in human beings: slave trading, prostitution, or the buying and selling of children or adults. Business in meat: "meat" refers to the bodies of beings after they are killed. This includes breeding animals for slaughter. Business in intoxicants: manufacturing or selling intoxicating drinks or addictive drugs. Business in poison: producing or trading in any kind of poison or a toxic product designed to kill.
The fifth precept According to the fifth precept of the Pancasila, Buddhists are meant to refrain from any quantity of "fermented or distilled beverages" which would prevent mindfulness or cause heedlessness. In the Pali Tipitaka the precept is explicitly concerned with alcoholic beverages:
"I undertake the training rule to abstain from fermented drink that causes heedlessness."
However, caffeine and tea are permitted, even encouraged for monks of most traditions, as it is believed to promote wakefulness.
Generally speaking, the vast majority of Buddhists and Buddhist sects denounce and have historically frowned upon the use of any intoxicants by an individual who has taken the five precepts. Most Buddhists view the use and abuse of intoxicants to be a hindrance in the development of an enlightened mind. However, there are a few historical and doctrinal exceptions.
Vajrayana
Many modern Buddhist schools have strongly discouraged the use of psychoactive drugs of any kind; however, they may not be prohibited in all circumstances in all traditions. Some denominations of tantric or esoteric Buddhism especially exemplify the latter, often with the principle skillful means:
Alcohol
For example, as part of the ganachakra tsok ritual (as well as Homa, abhisheka and sometimes drubchen) some Tibetan Buddhists and Bönpos have been known to ingest small amounts of grain alcohol (called amrit or amrita) as an offering. If a member is an alcoholic, or for some other reason does not wish to partake in the drinking of the alcoholic offering, then he or she may dip a finger in the alcohol and then flick it three times as part of the ceremony.
Amrita is also possibly the same as, or at least in some sense a conceptual derivative of the ancient Hindu soma (the latter historians often equate with Amanita muscaria or other Amanita psychoactive fungi). Crowley (1996) states:
"Undoubtedly, the striking parallels between "The legend about Chakdor" and the Hindu legend of the origin of soma show that the Buddhist amrita and the Hindu soma were at one time understood to be identical. Moreover, the principal property of amrita is, to this day, perceived by Buddhists as being a species of inebriation, however symbolically this inebriation may be interpreted. Why else would beer (Tibetan chhang, "barley beer") be used by yogins as a symbolic substitute for amrita [Ardussi]? Conversely, why else would the term bDud.rTsi be used as a poetic synonym for beer?
Conversely, in Tibetan and Sherpa lore there is a story about a monk who came across a woman who told him that he must either: a. kill her goat, b. sleep with her, or c. drink a mug of beer. d. All of the above.
The monk thought to himself, "well, surely if I kill the goat then I will be causing great suffering since a living being will die. If I sleep with the woman then I will have broken another great vow of a monk and will surely be lost to the ways of the world. Lastly, if I drink the beer then perhaps no great harm will come and I will only be intoxicated for a while, and most importantly I will only be hurting myself." (In the context of the story this instance is of particular importance to him because monks in the Mahayana and Vajrayana try to bring all sentient beings to enlightenment as part of their goal.)
So the monk drank the mug of beer and then he became very drunk. In his drunkenness he proceeded to kill the goat and sleep with the woman, breaking all three vows and, at least in his eyes, doing much harm in the world. The lesson of this story is meant to be that, at least according to the cultures from which it delineates, alcohol causes one to break all of one's vows, in a sense that one could say it is the cause of all other harmful deeds.
The Vajrayana teacher Drupon Thinley Ningpo Rinpoche has said that as part of the five precepts which a layperson takes upon taking refuge, that although they must refrain from taking intoxicants, they may drink enough so as they do not become drunk. Bhikkus and Bhikkunis (monks and nuns, respectively), on the other hand, who have taken the ten vows as part of taking refuge and becoming ordained, cannot imbibe any amount of alcohol or other drugs, other than pharmaceuticals taken as medicine.
Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet, is known as teetotaler and non-smoker.
Hallucinogens
There is some evidence regarding the use of deliriant Datura seeds (known as candabija) in Dharmic rituals associated with many tantras – namely the Vajramahabhairava, Samputa, Mahakala, Guhyasamaja, Tara and Krsnayamari tantras – as well as cannabis and other entheogens in minority Vajrayana sanghas. Ronald M Davidson says that in Indian Vajrayana, Datura was:
"employed as a narcotic paste or as wood in a fire ceremony and could be easily absorbed through the skin or the lungs. The seeds of this powerful narcotic, termed "passion seeds" (candabija), are the strongest elements and contain the alkaloids hyoscine, hyoscyamine, and atropine in forms that survive burning or boiling. In even moderate doses, datura can render a person virtually immobile with severe belladonna-like hallucinations."Ronald M Davidson 2002, Indian Esoteric Buddhism: a social history of the Tantric movement (datura and betel)