Belarusian-Polish administration of Minsk was a brief transitional period in the history of Minsk during World War I, lasting from the disarmament of Bolshevik forces in the city on 19 February 1918, to the transfer of power to the German administration on 21 February of the same year. This period was characterized by dual power, during which most of the city was controlled by Polish volunteer military units, while a smaller part was controlled by Belarusian forces. During this time, for the first time, the white-red-white flag of an independent Belarus was displayed on the government administration building in Minsk.
Historical context In early 20th century, Minsk was a city within the Russian Empire. In 1914, World War I broke out, with Russia participating as an opponent of the Central Powers. Simultaneously, from 1917, the country experienced successive revolutions and an internal struggle for power and political order. Belarusian nationalism was a minor political force in the city, with the Belarusian nationalists having won 2 seats (out of 102) in the 1917 Minsk City Duma election and their list the having mustered only 160 votes (0.4%) in the 1917 Russian Constituent Assembly election.Alexander Guzhalovsky. Мінская гарадская дума ў віхуры вайны і рэвалюцыі (1917–1918 гг.) The Belarusian national movement in the city consisted only of a small circle of intellectuals.
As a result of the October Revolution, from November 1917, Minsk became the administrative center of the Obliskomzap (Regional Executive Committee of the Soviets of Workers, Soldiers and Peasants Deputies of the Western Region and Front) headed by the Armenian Alexander Miasnikian. There was also the , which competed with the Minsk City Duma over the governance of the city.
In December 1917, the First All-Belarusian Congress took place in Minsk, organized by the (BOK, a grouping that had proposed the Congress as a move towards forming an autonomous or independent Belarusian government).Вадим ГИГИН. Могла ли состояться БССР в 1917 году? Whilst the holding of the Congress had received the approval from Lenin, Stalin and Sverdlov, it was dispersed by the Obliskomzap after adopting a resolution which had recognized the latter solely as a provisional military entity.Т. Н. Решецкая. ИСТОРИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВА И ПРАВА БЕЛАРУСИ. БГСХА, 2020. p. 59-62 However, it managed to make decisions, including forming Belarusian military units with the help of the under the leadership of Lt. Kastuś Jezavitaŭ. The leaders of the Congress also formed the Council of the All-Belarusian Congress, which declared itself the Congress' executive body and claimed the right to represent the Belarusian movement. Several Belarusian organizations, including the Central Belarusian Military Council, subordinated themselves to the Council. However, it still did not have real power and functioned in opposition to Obliskomzap, which controlled Minsk. At the turn of January and February 1918, the Central Belarusian Military Council was outlawed by the Bolsheviks, and its leadership was arrested.
Parallel to the Belarusian movement, organizations and structures related to the Polish movement were developing in Minsk. In May 1917, the was established, bringing together numerous Polish organizations from the Minsk region. Its role was to act as a self-governing body for the Polish community. Initially, the council supported the national aspirations of the Belarusians, advocating for an autonomous Belarus within a democratic Russian Republic, while simultaneously seeking to guarantee the rights of the Polish minority. After the October Revolution, the council saw the Bolsheviks as the main threat and, not seeing a possibility for an independent Belarusian state, began advocating for the incorporation of the Minsk region into Poland. At the same time, Polish military formations and organizations operated in the Minsk region. In the summer of 1917, the 1st Polish Corps was established, which by the turn of 1917 and 1918 counted up to 50,000 soldiers in Belarus. In Minsk, from October 1917 to January 1918, a paramilitary Polish Civil Guard, formed by local residents, was active. After it was disarmed by the Bolsheviks, the Polish Council of the Minsk Land decided to continue training its members underground. The Polish Military Organization was also active in the city.
On 9 February 1918, the Central Powers signed a peace treaty in Brest with the Ukrainian People's Republic and issued an ultimatum to the Bolsheviks, demanding the immediate signing of peace on their terms. The Bolsheviks rejected the ultimatum, and as a result, on February 18, Germany and Austria-Hungary launched an offensive against them, rapidly advancing eastward. By the evening of the same day, they had reached Maladzyechna, located 65 km from Minsk. Due to the proximity of the front, it became clear that the Germans would reach the city within a few days.
Course of events
Evacuation of the Bolsheviks
Upon hearing news of the start of the German offensive, the Bolsheviks in Minsk announced their intention to defend the city. The Executive Committee of the Council of People's Commissars of the Western Front, which held power in the city, declared that it would defend and ensure the integrity and safety of Soviet power. However, the Bolshevik troops were demoralized by demobilization and pacifist agitation, and their commanders were unable to stop their retreat. In this situation, at a meeting during the night of 18 to 19 February, the Council of People's Commissars decided not to resist and to evacuate to Smolensk. The Bolsheviks' retreat from Minsk took place in panic, chaos, and complete demoralization. Eyewitnesses described the retreating troops as being in a helpless, thoughtless rush: "They left by cars and sleds... in a headlong rush, breaking vehicles, losing crates and bags, and unnerving both themselves and others". The Bolshevik commissars in particular had trouble escaping, as the railway workers in Minsk decided around noon not to allow them to leave the city.
A serious sense of unrest also spread among the residents of Minsk. The exodus of the Bolsheviks reminded them of the retreat of the Tsarist army in 1915, which especially terrified the war refugees living in Minsk. On the other hand, there was also fear of other demoralized Bolshevik units, which, retreating eastward, burned and looted towns along their route (as happened, for example, in Koydanava). A rumor spread that hungry, wild, and disorganized groups of Bolshevik soldiers defeated by the 1st Polish Corps near Asipovichy were approaching the city. The Poles living in Minsk were particularly anxious, convinced that the Bolsheviks saw them as potential enemies. They feared retaliation for the Bolsheviks' defeats in the fight against the 1st Polish Corps. During the night of 18 to 19 February, Polish intelligence intercepted an order from Western Front commander Aleksandr Miasnikian, calling for a fight against the enemies of revolutionary power. On February 19, Lysakov, commander of the Minsk garrison, issued his last order, calling for a final reckoning with the Poles.
Preparations of Belarusians and Poles
On February 19, around noon, the imprisoned six members of the Central Belarusian Military Council received news of the Germans approaching Minsk. Taking advantage of the general chaos, they managed to escape from the guardhouse where they were being held and met at the home of A. Lewicki around 2:00 PM. An hour later, an extraordinary session of the Executive Committee of the Central Belarusian Military Council began. The participants decided to attempt to take control of the city and transfer power to the Council of the All-Belarusian Congress. Kastuś Jezavitaŭ, leader of the Central Belarusian Military Council, was appointed the Belarusian commander of the city.
Independently of the Belarusians, the Poles were also preparing for action. At 4:00 PM, Polish military activists associated with the Polish Military Organization and the 1st Polish Corps met at the cobbler Dobraszczyc’s place. Initially, the group consisted of four people, including Captain Ignacy Matuszewski, but by 7:00 PM, it had grown to seven. At that point, they decided to carry out an offensive operation against the Bolsheviks. Captain Ignacy Matuszewski was appointed the Polish commander of the city, and he signed orders using the codename Topór.
For the Belarusian national activists, the "liberation of Minsk" held special significance, as the city was the main political center of their country and the planned seat of the government of their future republic. The Poles, on the other hand, saw Bolshevik rule as a threat. However, according to historian Dariusz Tarasiuk, these actions were primarily intended for propaganda purposes. The disorganization of the Bolsheviks and the fact that there was no real authority in the city at the time encouraged these efforts. Nonetheless, they were highly risky. The Bolsheviks held a significant numerical advantage over the Belarusian and Polish military units. The Bolsheviks had around 13,000 well-armed soldiers in Minsk, though most of them were at the railway stations, caught up in the retreat, while some were disoriented groups and deserters wandering through the city. The Poles likely had 343 soldiers armed with 27 rifles, although less reliable sources mentioned numbers of a few dozen and 1,600. The Belarusians, meanwhile, had hastily gathered groups of soldiers and union members, including railway workers and telegraphists. Another risk factor for the Poles was that their operation was not coordinated with the commander of the 1st Polish Corps, General Józef Dowbor-Muśnicki.
Military actions on February 19 At 9:00 PM, the first independent Belarusian and Polish units appeared on the streets of Minsk. Their initial goal was to seize weapons by disarming the Bolsheviks present in the city. Despite their significant numerical superiority, the Bolsheviks offered little resistance to the soldiers disarming them. According to Melchior Wańkowicz, there was an incident where five Poles disarmed a Bolshevik unit of 150 soldiers. By 9:00 PM, the Poles had taken control of an armory on Skobielewska Street, which allowed them to arm 200 Polish volunteers. Soon, significant quantities of weapons were in the hands of the Belarusians and Poles. There were only minor skirmishes and shootings, and real resistance was offered by only about 100 Red Guards. Many new volunteers began joining the Belarusian and Polish formations.
The Poles began occupying key strategic points in the city with guard posts, organizing small but highly mobile patrols. Their mobility was intended to create the impression that numerous Polish troops had arrived in the city. At the same time, they spread rumors of Polish I Corps units entering Minsk to intimidate the enemy. Meanwhile, at 9:15 PM, the Belarusians took control of the arsenal on Moskiewska Street, at 9:20 PM – the Governor’s House, and at 9:25 PM, they stormed the main entrance of the Hotel Europa, where the headquarters of the Bolshevik Executive Committee of the Western District, the Cheka, and the Red Guards staff were located. Karl Lander and other high-ranking communist officials escaped through the back door of the building. The Belarusians made another attempt to capture them at the railway station with the help of railway workers, finally trying to blow up their train, causing two carriages to overturn and Karl Lander’s carriage to derail.