The history of Switzerland since 1914 encompasses the final phase of the formation of the Confederation of 22 cantons, commencing with the aftermath of World War I and culminating in the establishment of the canton of Jura. This period also marks the subsequent trajectory of the country's history.
During the First World War, German-speaking Switzerland demonstrated a proclivity towards the Central Powers. In contrast, French-speaking Switzerland, exhibiting greater affinity for the Allies, voiced opposition to the appointment of Ulrich Wille as the army's general. The population endured food shortages throughout the conflict. In 1915, the Federal Council enacted a monopoly on grain distribution. After the war, while Vorarlberg voted for annexation to Switzerland but was ultimately assigned to Austria, the country adopted a foreign policy of armed neutrality. Switzerland joined the League of Nations (LN) in 1920, with its headquarters established in Geneva.
The social difficulties caused by the war led to the general strike of 1918, which resulted in the limitation of working hours and the ending of the Radical Party majority in the Federal Assembly, and subsequently in the Federal Council. The internal politics polarised into two opposing fronts that used referendums to block decisions, forcing the government to use urgent federal decrees. Economically, Switzerland suffered from the 1921, 1922, and 1929 crisis crash.
The early 1930s saw the rise of fascist movements and clashes between the far-left and far-right, which reached a shooting on November 9, 1932 in Geneva with the shooting and continued until 1937, when the "labor peace" agreement was signed, effectively ending direct ideological confrontations. The government also prepared the country for another military conflict during this period.
At the onset of World War II in 1939, Switzerland was not unprepared. Before the conflict, the government had secured supplies, mobilized the army under the command of General Henri Guisan, and initiated a rationing program to ensure the population's basic needs were met. However, by May 1940, the country was surrounded by Axis forces, placing the government in a challenging position.
Following the conclusion of the war, Switzerland proceeded with the further development of its welfare state. Domestically, the "magic formula" was introduced in 1959 and remained unchanged until 2003. Women's suffrage was accepted at the federal level in 1971. The late 1960s were marked by the Jura Question, which concerned the establishment of the new canton of Jura on January 1, 1979, created by separating part of the canton of Bern.
World War I
Preparation of the Swiss army
On August 4, 1914, three days after Prussia declared war on Russia, which marked the commencement of the First World War, Switzerland, through the Federal Council, issued a declaration of neutrality. This was by the decision made in 1815 by European powers at the Congress of Vienna, which confirmed Switzerland's perpetual neutrality. This accord had established Switzerland's perpetual neutrality, a commitment that was acknowledged and guaranteed by both France and Prussia, who pledged to "scrupulously respect the neutrality of Switzerland."
As early as July 31, 1914, the Federal Council ordered the general mobilization of the Swiss army, which at the time comprised 220,000 men, who subsequently entered service between August 3 and 7. In addition to this mobilization, the Federal Council, having received full powers from the Federal Assembly, elected Ulrich Wille as the general of the Swiss army, despite opposition from several parliamentarians among the Romands and the Socialists.
Following the implementation of successive reorganizations of the army in 1907 and 1911, leaders of the Swiss General Staff were allowed to evaluate the efficacy of their newly devised structure, thereby ensuring a measured response to the declaration of war. The 1912 maneuvers attracted the attention of a notable guest, Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany. In terms of equipment, troops had been equipped with carbines since 1911 and had machine guns and grenades. However, production was insufficient in terms of ammunition and other materials, such as uniforms, steel helmets, and gas masks, which were only delivered between 1916 and 1918. Furthermore, the army lacked armored vehicles and had only limited aviation and artillery forces.
The Franco-German divide
The conflict resulted in a deepening of the divide between the Romands (French-speaking Swiss) and the Alemannic Swiss (German-speaking Swiss). The former supported the Allies and denounced the "Teutomania" of their German-speaking cousins. At the same time, the latter, through the voice of a future Alemannic Federal Councillor, criticized the "old disloyalty of the Romands." quoted by The controversy reached a crescendo with the German Army's invasion of neutral Belgium. The Romand press aligned with the Allies, while the Alemannic press endorsed the German intervention. Despite repeated interventions by the Federal Council on October 1, 1914, and by the poet Carl Spitteler on December 14, 1914, the term (German for "gap") emerged, symbolizing the political rifts that arose from this controversy.
The initial crisis originated from the army chief, who was already regarded as being anti-Romand and anti-Socialist, having married Countess von Bismarck. On July 20, 1915, he proposed to the Federal Council that the country should enter the war alongside Prussia. This letter, which was revealed by the press, caused significant discontent in Romandy.
In 1915, Léon Froidevaux, the editor of the newspaper Le Petit Jurassien in Moutier, asserted that the Bernese Jura was analogous to the Alsace-Lorraine region of France. This remark prompted a two-month suspension of the newspaper's publication. Froidevaux reiterated his assertion in the following months by disclosing that cartridges had been removed from military personnel stationed at the Jura border. As a result, he was charged with treason and sentenced to 13 months' imprisonment.
In December 1915, the affair between the colonels came to a head. General Wille and the Federal Council were informed that Colonels Friedrich Moritz von Wattenwyl and , both members of the General Staff, had divulged confidential documents to the Germans and Austro-Hungarians. On January 11, 1916, the Federal Council ordered an administrative inquiry to be conducted, which was followed by judicial proceedings. The two accused were found not guilty under criminal law on February 28 and returned to the army for possible disciplinary action. Wille, who had hoped to keep the affair quiet and opposed their conviction, believing it would harm the army's image, sentenced them to only twenty days of strict detention.
On January 27, 1916, the German consulate in Lausanne hoisted its flag to commemorate the anniversary of the Emperor's birth. This gesture prompted protests from local youths who tore down the flag, resulting in a diplomatic incident. This was ultimately resolved through the presentation of apologies by the Vaud government to the consul, by the Federal Council to the German ambassador, and by the Swiss ambassador to the imperial government.
In May 1917, Robert Grimm, a Socialist National Councillor from Bern, endeavored to facilitate the conclusion of a separate peace agreement between Russia and Germany. He was supported in this endeavor by Federal Councillor Arthur Hoffmann, head of the Political Department, who acted without the requisite consent of his colleagues. On June 18, 1917, the Grimm–Hoffmann affair came to light when a telegram exchanged between the two men was intercepted and deciphered by the French Army, subsequently made public by Minister Albert Thomas. As a result of these developments, Grimm was expelled from Russia, and Hoffmann resigned on June 19, 1917. This was in response to mounting criticism from the Allies, who viewed this unilateral initiative as a breach of Switzerland's neutrality. Additionally, public demonstrations in Romandy and Ticino further contributed to the political turmoil of the time.
In 1917, Paul Graber, a socialist journalist and member of the National Council of Switzerland, published an article in which he detailed the alleged mistreatment of a Swiss soldier by his officers during a march. He was sentenced to eight days' imprisonment in La Chaux-de-Fonds but was supported by his colleague Jules Humbert-Droz, who organized a demonstration to secure his release. The military stopped the demonstration, and Humbert-Droz was sentenced to three months' imprisonment for insulting the army.
Economic and social consequences of the war The economic warfare waged by the belligerents impacted significantly Switzerland, which was surrounded by warring countries for the first time since 1815. However, following negotiations, both parties agreed to continue the delivery of raw materials, on the condition that these materials were not resold to their respective adversaries. The Allies, who deliberately limited their deliveries to the needs of Swiss consumption, demanded the creation of a central purchasing agency to monitor the use of the products. This was done on August 6, 1915, with the establishment of the Swiss Economic Surveillance Society, followed by the creation of the Swiss Fiduciary Office for the Control of Goods Traffic. In addition to the diplomatic issues, the volume of imports was also affected by transport disruptions and the diminished delivery capacities of suppliers.
The considerable expense of Swiss mobilization was rapidly borne by the population. While the country's external debt tripled between 1913 and 1925, the Confederation was compelled to implement a direct federal tax for the first time in 1915, as customs duties were no longer adequate to cover public expenditure.
These factors resulted in a notable surge in inflationary pressures. The escalation in the cost of essential commodities (food, clothing, and fuel, in particular) significantly outpaced wage growth, leading to a nearly 30% decline in workers' purchasing power. This followed a period during which the cost-of-living index rose from 100 to 250 points between 1914 and 1919. Furthermore, the average length of service for soldiers during the war was 500 days, during which time they received only their daily pay and no salary compensation. This resulted in further impoverishment of the population.
Despite the establishment of a "grain office" (subsequently renamed the "Bread Office") in 1914 and the introduction of a wheat monopoly in January 1915, at the behest of the leftist faction, the government did not implement a federal rationing plan for foodstuffs until the autumn of 1917. This decision was made concurrently with establishing a Federal Food Office, which was tasked with addressing the needs of the population facing economic challenges. In 1918, it was officially reported that 692,000 individuals (one-sixth of the population) could not meet their financial obligations.
Treaty of Versailles and Vorarlberg
The signing of the Treaty of Versailles by the German and Allied powers on June 28, 1919, confirmed Switzerland's status as a neutral state. In return, Switzerland formally renounced its right (never exercised) to occupy Northern Savoy, which had been granted at the request of the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1815. However, the treaty did not address the issue of free-trade zones, particularly those granted by Napoleon III in Haute-Savoie and the Pays de Gex. This point was only settled on October 30, 1924, following mediation by the Permanent Court of International Justice.