Freemasonry during World War I upheld its universalist principles, yet Freemasons in countries at war served their respective nations without restriction, thereby challenging the Lumières-derived principles of universal fraternity that have governed Freemasonry since its inception.
The networks it established before the outbreak of war served to foster hope for a pacifist solution to the global economic tensions that were being experienced at the time. Despite the absence of a formal agreement between Masonic currents, the organization supported internationalist and pacifist movements at the beginning of the 20th century. This was achieved by creating the during the 1st Esperanto Congress of 1905. Additionally, the Office of International Relations was established to unite the world's Grand Lodge. But this initiative did not fully achieve its primary goal and ceased to exist after the conflict. Attempts to foster closer relations between French and German Freemasonries to prevent a recurrence of armed conflict encountered significant obstacles, primarily due to the anti-Semitic rhetoric propagated by the press and the mistrust prevailing among both liberal and traditional obedience.
At the outset of the hostilities, each Masonic nation rallied behind its banner, each invoking self-defense and defense of humanity's values. The obedience of states that chose neutrality initiated or continued relations with other Masonic nations, sometimes from both camps. Despite the violent upheavals and confrontations caused by the conflict, Masonic obediences on all continents continued their activities, and some fraternal demonstrations even took place in prisoner-of-war camps.
Despite the ideal of universal fraternity being called into question by the actions of obedience that retreated to their respective national causes, from 1917 onward, as the end of the war approached, they placed their hopes in a new world that would be more just and enlightened. As with every significant upheaval since its inception, Freemasonry devised a future and course of action through its capacity to create new dynamics, drawing on both its ancient constitutions imbued with universalism and a utopian ideal.
European masonic powers before the war At the beginning of the 20th century, Freemasonry experienced global expansion in alignment with the economic and colonial development of primarily European powers. The International Office of Masonic Relations documented the existence of nearly 24,000 lodges across the globe, comprising a membership of over two million Freemasons. Nevertheless, the United States had been the preeminent Masonic power since the 19th century, with its growth structured through affiliation and division (the Mothering Process). This model was inspired by the British model but adapted to align with American culture. The American Freemasonry membership comprised 1,500,000 white members and 30,000 Black members, who were largely excluded from the organization due to racial discrimination. Nevertheless, the country's isolationism and philanthropic approach focused on America did not facilitate its international influence. The British Empire constituted the second-largest Masonic space, with a membership of nearly 490,000 and 6,000 lodges. In 1913, the Anglo-American bloc accounted for four-fifths of the world's Freemasons. Continental Europe constituted the third-largest Masonic space, with 160,000 members, while Latin America had between 55,000 and 60,000 members. At the beginning of the 20th century, despite significant differences, the three major European Masonic obediences continued the evolution that had begun in the 19th century, becoming more or less nationalized.
United Kingdom
In 1914, the United Kingdom played a pivotal role in the global economy and Freemasonry. It is estimated that 99% of Freemasons belonged to one of the three "historic" obedience. The United Grand Lodge of England, regarded as the "Mother Lodge of the World", had between 270,000 and 290,000 members. The Grand Master since 1901 was Duke Arthur of Connaught and Strathearn, son of Queen Victoria. A significant proportion of the kingdom's elite were members, including Winston Churchill. The English obedience comprised 1,700 lodges on the mainland and over 700 in territories and colonies of the British Empire. Its sociological recruitment and alignment with the Conservative Party and the Anglican Church contributed to its strong presence in London, the Midlands, and southern England.
Scotland, concurrently, exhibited the highest density of Freemasons globally, with nearly one in thirty adult males belonging to an obedience, comprising approximately 50,000 members, the vast majority of whom were part of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. As with the English obedience, a significant proportion of its leadership originated from the nobility. However, it differed in its more religious expression and spiritual tolerance. The lodges it established in territories with more inclusive social structures allowed for the admission of non-white communities or members of other religions besides Christianity. The recruitment process was less elitist, comprising artisans, small business owners, or professionals who formed mutualist networks and affirmed a Scottish identity.
Ireland was the subject of considerable hostility from both Catholics and radical nationalists. However, the Grand Lodge of Ireland had a membership of between 30,000 and 50,000, most of whom were from the province of Ulster. In 1913, the Grand Lodge was led by Richard Hely-Hutchison, Earl of Donoughmore, and its membership was predominantly Protestant or Anglo-Irish.
The establishment of female and mixed-gender Freemasonry is generally considered to have commenced in 1906 with the creation of the Human Duty lodge in London by Annie Besant. This was followed by the establishment of a further fourteen mixed lodges up to 1914.
The United Grand Lodge of England, which defines its role as Mother Lodge of the World", initially sought to consolidate relations between the three historic obediences. In 1904, John W. Woodall, a former dignitary of the English obedience, established an organization to promote peace through Freemasonry. The International Masonic Club was established to facilitate encounters between Freemasons of diverse nationalities, with London serving as a hub for over 51,000 European nationals, predominantly Germans, French, and Italians, representing a range of social and professional backgrounds.
Germany In 1914, the German Empire was the most populous country in Europe, with a population of 69 million. It was also the leading industrial and military power. The country's dominant position was sustained by a protectionist economic policy, the export of high-quality goods, and robust domestic demand, which enabled significant productivity gains. In 1900, the country was Europe's second-largest Masonic power, although it was characterized by considerable fragmentation and high obedience. The Freemasonry under the German Empire was constituted by approximately ten obediences, divided into two principal groups. Two principal currents may be identified within the German Masonic tradition: a "Prussian" or "Christian" current, which may be characterized as conservative and nationalist, and a "humanitarian" current, which may be described as internationalist and liberal. The Prussian current constituted approximately three-quarters of Germany's Masonic membership and was divided into three major lodges: the "Große Landesloge", which was established in 1740, the "Große National-Mutterloge", and the "Große Loge." The humanitarian current, which assumed this designation in the early 20th century, was established in the 19th century and comprised five obediences: the Grand Lodge of Hamburg, the Grand Lodge of the Sun, the National Grand Lodge of Saxony, the Eclectic Union Grand Mother Lodge, and the Grand Mother Lodge of Concord. Notwithstanding their divergences, the eight principal German lodges acknowledged each other as regular. In 1872, the various German Grand Lodges formed the Alliance of German Grand Lodges, which by 1920 had a membership of 20,000. In 1907, a ninth obedience, the Alliance Maçonnique du Soleil, was created with a focus on pacifism and internationalism. This new obedience had a few hundred members in 1914 but was later ostracized by all other obediences.
France
In 1913, the Grand Orient de France (GODF) comprised 30,700 members, distributed across 432 lodges. The obedience was presided over by , a senator representing the Nord region. The convocation of the Convent, held in September 1913, called for amendments to the law enacted in August, which extended military service to three years. This legislation was regarded as antithetical to the tenets of universal fraternity espoused by Freemasonry and was perceived to exacerbate the "blood tax" imposed on the populace. In late September, the Grand Lodge of France, under the Grand Master of the Order, Gustave Mesureur, held its Convent in new premises on in Paris. At the beginning of the century, the obedience was aligned with the ideology of the Grand Orient of France (GODF), debating issues such as the high cost of living, free school supplies, and the fight against alcoholism.
Additionally, the French Masonic landscape encompassed the International Mixed Masonic Order, Le Droit Humain, which, in 1914, oversaw the operations of 21 lodges and comprised approximately 1,000 members. It also included the , which had recently separated from Le Droit Humain, the , and a few smaller organizations representing Egyptian currents, such as Memphis-Misraïm, Martinism, and the Swedenborg Rite. The Independent and Regular Grand Lodge, established in 1914, was promptly acknowledged by the United Grand Lodge of England by aligning itself with the deist current of Freemasonry. French obediences, in tune with the prevailing social mores, were divided between pacifism and patriotism. This dichotomy is exemplified by a motion presented at the GODF convent in 1911, where advocated for the defense of the homeland in case of aggression and for seeking contacts to strengthen peace.
Masonic internationalism and pacifism
From 1840 onwards, relations between different obediences developed to create a global network, despite numerous language barriers. This process gathered pace between 1890 and 1900. Contacts proliferated at all levels, with obediences, lodges, and Freemasons formalizing numerous treaties of friendship or mutual recognition. However, relations were primarily conducted through Masonic channels. The traditional Anglo-Saxon current, which was predominantly deist and composed mainly of historical British and American obediences, and the Latin current, which was liberal and often anticlerical, with its primary composition being the major French, Italian, Spanish, and Belgian obediences, were the two major trends that Freemasonry gravitated towards. Additionally, a Freemasonry that emerged from the colonial empires in South America and Oceania also formed part of this network.
The culture of peace that has long been embedded in the heritage of European Freemasonry was a significant factor in the development of internationalism and pacifism within the movement during the second half of the nineteenth century. The inaugural initiative was undertaken during the inaugural World Esperanto Congress in Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1905, with the establishment of the . This organization was open to all individuals, irrespective of their liberal or traditional obediences. The internationalist project that was developing around Esperanto attracted a considerable number of Freemasons.