Acadian literature is literature produced in Acadia,Acadia roughly encompasses the north and east of the Canadian province of New Brunswick, as well as more isolated communities in Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Nova Scotia. More broadly, Acadia also refers to the communities of the Acadian diaspora in Quebec and the United States; people of Acadian descent can also be found in France, the Falkland Islands and the Caribbean. Acadia is not officially recognized, but would constitute a nation through its language, culture, institutions, and symbols. or considered as such.
The colonial period was characterized by a scarcity of textual production, largely attributable to the challenging socio-economic circumstances prevailing at the time. The poem Evangeline by American Henry Longfellow exerted a considerable influence on the emergence of Acadian literature. From the mid-19th century onwards, priest-writers began to publish. Historians such as Placide Gaudet and Pascal Poirier subsequently contributed to the field, and nationalist debates shaped the literature until the 1960s. From 1966 onwards, a new generation of authors challenged traditional values. In the early 1970s, poetry collections such as Cri de terre by Raymond Guy LeBlanc, Acadie Rock by Guy Arsenault, Saison antérieures by Léonard Forest, and Mourir à Scoudouc by Herménégilde Chiasson marked this turning point. The success of these writers influenced others, including Melvin Gallant, whose collections of tales, Ti-Jean, and Louis Haché, whose historical novels were well received. and also made an impact with their speculative fiction and poetry, respectively. In 1979, Antonine Maillet was awarded the esteemed Prix Goncourt for her novel .
, the inaugural Acadian female author to be published, released a poetry collection in 1980. Gérald Leblanc also made a significant contribution during this decade.
The establishment of in 1972 facilitated the broader dissemination of works and enabled local publishing. Among other publishing houses, Éditions Perce-Neige has distinguished itself in the field of poetry, while Bouton d'or Acadie has established a reputation for excellence in children's literature. In 2000, Éditions d'Acadie filed for bankruptcy, compelling numerous authors to seek out publishers in Quebec or Ontario. A portion of the repertoire remains unavailable in bookstores. Several anthologies and literary histories have been published, notably by and . Criticism only truly developed in the 1990s, yet Acadian authors faced challenges in gaining recognition and popularizing their works outside of Acadia. However, the number of writers and the quality of their work have grown significantly.
Origins
French regime
The colony of Acadia was established in 1604 by Pierre Dugua de Mons. Subsequently, Jean de Poutrincourt was bestowed the title of lieutenant-governor of Acadia, contingent upon his fulfillment of certain obligations, including the introduction of settlers. In 1606, he brought dozens of artisans, several noteworthy individuals, and the lawyer Marc Lescarbot. During his one-year tenure, Lescarbot established the foundations of Acadian literature in Port-Royal. In his writings, Lescarbot sought to elucidate the shortcomings of previous expeditions while refuting several pervasive myths about America, concurrently creating the myth of Acadia as the Promised Land.
For Nicolas Denys, the myth revolved around abundance; he compared Acadia to the land of Cockaigne. In 1672, at the age of 74, he published , in which he offered a critique of those who had prevented him from achieving his dream while urging others to take up the cause. He concluded that Acadia would only develop and avoid being abandoned to France's enemies if internal quarrels ceased. Dière de Dièreville visited Port-Royal in 1699 and was disheartened by the condition of the settlement and the poverty of its inhabitants. This was in stark contrast to the "false representation" he had previously received of Acadia. Although originally composed in verse, Relation du Voyage du Port Royal de l'Acadie (1708) accounts accurately the fauna, flora, and especially the daily life in Acadia. From his text, the carefree and benevolent spirit of the colony emerges, though he questions the king's apparent disinterest in the colony, despite the population's demonstrated loyalty. In Memoirs (1716), , a proponent of social justice and a visionary thinker, also denounced this situation, proposing a policy that would transform New France "into a kingdom as flourishing as old Europe." His concise and incisive style synthesizes the fervor of Lescarbot with the assurance of Denys.
In 1616, Pierre Biard, a Jesuit, published Relation de la Nouvelle-France. In his text, he likely refers to Lescarbot to dismantle the illusions created by previous accounts. Nevertheless, he depicts a beautiful colony with great potential, which France should continue to colonize and evangelize. This text offers valuable insights into his disagreements with the lords of Port-Royal, the early struggles between France and England for dominance in North America, and the challenges and hopes of evangelizing the Indigenous peoples. Subsequently, numerous missionaries would espouse a similar conviction regarding the necessity of acquiring proficiency in Indigenous languages. Chrétien Le Clercq is even reputed to have devised the Mi'kmaq hieroglyphs during his 10-year tenure in Gaspé. In Nouvelle Relations de la Gaspésie (1691), he portrayed the customs of the Mi'kmaq people with remarkable vividness and sensitivity.
British regime
Following the transfer of Acadia to England in 1713, there was a dearth of written accounts by French individuals about the colony. However, Île Royale and Île Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton Island) remained French possessions, and missionaries and administrators corresponded with the Acadians and the government to propose solutions. Notwithstanding the perspicacious observations proffered by in his travel reports to Île Royale and Île Saint-Jean (1751) and Canada (1752 and 1753), the government remained unmoved in its stance towards its colonies. The tumultuous political climate and the gradual demographic expansion since the colony's inception account for the paucity of texts produced by Acadians during this era.
Grand Dérangement
From 1755 to 1763, the Acadian population was forcibly deported. In contrast to the preceding period, numerous French authors produced written works on Acadia during this time. Abbé , the sole Catholic priest in British territory for two years, articulated the Acadians' resolute determination to remain in what had been, until that point, "a paradise on earth." Following the deportation, a period elapsed before Acadian literature reappeared; however, oral traditions remained robust. However, the themes of deportation and exile were seldom present in the narratives of the period, including tales, legends, laments, and songs. Letters from Vénérande Robichaud to her brother , whose entire family was deported to Boston, illustrate the emotional challenges faced by exiles in maintaining contact with their scattered families and in coping with their living conditions. Other letters, such as those from Mathurin Bourg and French Canadian missionaries, provide insight into the challenging work of priests, the poor living conditions, and the gradual reorganization of Acadian society. During their exile, the Acadians sent numerous petitions to governments, which can be considered the foundation of Acadian literature. These petitions perpetuated the myth of Acadia as the Promised Land, later replaced by Louisiana as a destination, though not in the collective consciousness of the first generations.
Foreign authors were the first to create the myth of a lost Acadia and a martyred, resigned, and faithful people. The initial significant contribution to this field was Evangeline, an American work by Henry Longfellow, published in 1847. In his account, Longfellow depicted the Acadians in a manner reminiscent of Dièreville, albeit with the addition of the detail that they had become landowners with large livestock herds. The narrative commences with the betrothal of Evangeline and Gabriel. On the following day, the British government issued an edict for the deportation of the Acadians, thereby bringing an end to the golden age of the Acadian people and separating the two lovers. Evangeline sets out to find Gabriel, while he wanders, attempting to forget his sorrow. They narrowly miss each other in Louisiana, where many Acadians had taken refuge. In old age, Evangeline concludes her search and becomes a nun in a hospital in Philadelphia, where she finally encounters Gabriel, who is dying. The poem was an immediate success and prompted discussions about the veracity of the events described, drawing European and American attention to the plight of the Acadians.
The novel Jacques et Marie by Napoleon Bourassa was serialized in 1865, the same year the French version of Evangeline was released. Probably, the novel was more widely read in Acadia than Longfellow's poem. Nevertheless, both Longfellow and Bourassa exerted a significant influence on Acadian literature. The significance of Evangeline is such that the poem contributed to the Acadian Renaissance and was adopted by the Acadians as a national symbol. Subsequently, numerous other authors have published novels on the subject of the deportation. In 1859, Frenchman published La France aux colonies: Acadiens et Canadiens. The term "Acadiens et Canadiens" is used to refer to the French-speaking inhabitants of Canada. He articulated his conviction in the necessity of revitalizing the Acadian populace and, in a sense, delineated a strategy to guarantee their perpetuation. Rameau generated considerable interest in Acadia, leading him to undertake two trips to the region. His writings were published in local newspapers, which lauded him as a benefactor and esteemed friend of the Acadians. Rameau's influence on Acadian literature persisted until the mid-20th century. Furthermore, the program he proposed influenced an entire generation, culminating in the .
Acadian renaissance
The establishment of educational institutions in the 19th century, followed by the , facilitated the rediscovery of identity and aspirations among the Acadians and their clergy in an Anglophone context. During this period, writer-priests such as , , and began publishing. The rediscovery of Acadian history led to a significant number of texts, particularly those by Placide Gaudet, Joseph-Fidèle Raîche, and Pascal Poirier. Until the 1960s, Acadian literature was dominated by nationalist debate.
Nationalist era In the 20th century, the importance of nationalism declined, and numerous authors, including Antonine Maillet, shifted their attention to other subjects.
Many authors from the diaspora published during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, including Eddy Boudreau, Donat Coste (pseudonym of Daniel Boudreau), and . Despite spending the majority of his life outside of Acadie, Després is regarded as the pioneering figure in Acadian literature by contemporary poets. Given the circumstances of the time, authors needed to be published in Quebec, as evidenced by the case of Antonine Maillet, who became a prominent figure representing Acadie. She created a universal work, inspired by her life and firmly rooted in the environment of her hometown, Bouctouche.