The history of the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza, a former state on the Italian Peninsula whose capital was the city of Parma, begins in 1545 and ends in 1860.
The duchy was established due to nepotism practised by Pope Paul III and was initially governed by the Farnese family, to which the pontiff belonged. Despite the claims of France, Spain, and Austria, the duchy maintained its autonomy, particularly after the extinction of the Farnese in 1731, when a branch of the Spanish Bourbons, the Bourbon-Parma, assumed the throne.
The duchy's geographical location in the heart of the Po Valley made it susceptible to incursions by foreign armies, particularly during the succession wars of the 18th century. In 1796, it was occupied by the Italian Army, and in 1808, it was annexed to the First French Empire. Implementing French laws resulted in significant disruption to the country's traditions and transformation into the Taro department.
In 1815 the Congress of Vienna reinstated the Duchy of Parma and designated Marie Louise of Austria, the second wife of Napoleon I, as its ruler. She remains the most esteemed sovereign in the history of the Parmesans. She re-established the duchy's alignment with Austrian interests, a shift that extended to much of the Italian Peninsula. Following her death in 1847, the Bourbon-Parma returned to Parma. However, less than fifteen years later, in 1860, the unifying forces of the Risorgimento, which swept through Italy, led to the annexation of the duchy by the Kingdom of Sardinia, as evidenced by the results of a plebiscite.
Farnese period (1545–1731)
Creation of the Duchy
The Duchy of Parma originated from a significant portion of the Duchy of Milan, situated to the south of the Po River. On 22 September 1346, Lucien Visconti purchased Parma for 60,000 gold florins from the Marquis of Ferrara, Obizzo III d'Este, who had held Parma for two years since acquiring it from Azzo di Correggio.
In 1512, during the Congress of Mantua, the region of Parma was detached from the Duchy of Milan for the benefit of the Papal States. This was the first instance in which Italian princes were united against the French presence. Maximilian Sforza, the son of the deposed Duke of Milan, was compelled to concede nearly a quarter of the lands previously owned by his father in exchange for papal intervention.
In the aftermath of the French victory at Marignano in 1515, Francis I reclaimed the Duchy of Milan, restoring it to its original boundaries and effectively removing Parma from papal authority. In 1521, Pope Leo X and Charles V allied and expelled the French from Parma (and the entire Duchy of Milan). The city was besieged once more by the French and their Venetian allies in December, but the attempt was unsuccessful. In 1528, Charles V visited Parma and placed the city, along with Piacenza, under papal control. The Este family retained control of Reggio Emilia and Modena, which had formed the Duchy of Modena and Reggio since 1452.
During this period, the Farnese family achieved a prominent position within the political and social hierarchy of the time. In 1527 Pier Luigi Farnese, a condottiere serving Charles V, participated in the Sack of Rome with imperial troops while defending his family's properties and the Palazzo Farnese. His father, Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, was meanwhile positioned alongside Pope Clement VII, who was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo. Alessandro participated in the subsequent lengthy negotiations in Bologna. In 1534, Clement VII died, and the conclave elected Alessandro as pope. He took the name Paul III and promptly engaged in nepotism by appointing two of his grandsons, Alessandro Farnese and Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora, as cardinals.
The family's ascendance persisted with the marriage of Ottavio Farnese, son of Pier Luigi, to Margaret of Parma, the illegitimate daughter of Charles V and Jeanne van der Gheyst, in 1538. In 1543, Pope Paul III asserted the claim of the Duchy of Milan on behalf of Ottavio, but Charles V granted him the Marquessate of Novara. Despite opposition from prelates concerned about losing two important cities, the pope renewed his family's claim to Parma and Piacenza for Pier Luigi, as he had failed to secure the entirety of Milan. Subsequently, the pope appointed his son as Gonfalonier of the Church and established a new fiefdom, which was formally recognized by a papal bull dated 26 August 1545. Pier Luigi had to await the official investiture until 23 September and selected Piacenza as the capital due to its proximity to Milan, Genoa, and Piedmont.
Farnese consolidation Pier Luigi undertook considerable diplomatic endeavours with the emperor to substantiate his appointment; however, Charles V remained undecided, opting to confer the title upon his son-in-law, Ottavio Farnese, whom Pier Luigi deemed too youthful. Venice, seeking support against France, was the inaugural state to acknowledge Pier Luigi.
During his tenure, Pier Luigi established a Supreme Council of Justice (Supremo Consiglio di Giustizia) and appointed a magistrate for the ducal chamber's revenues (Magistrato delle rendite della Camera Ducale). He undertook a comprehensive reorganization of the postal system, conducted a population census, and sought to curtail the privileges of the feudal system.
However, the longevity of his dynasty was not assured. In 1547, Pier Luigi was assassinated by the nobility of Piacenza, likely with the approval of the governor of Milan, Ferrante Gonzaga. The emperor, Ferrante Gonzaga, or the lords of Piacenza were potential candidates for involvement.
But Ottavio assumed control of Parma, whose lords had not participated in the conspiracy, and resisted Paul III's attempts to reclaim the duchy, thereby asserting his authority. He sought assistance from his father-in-law, Charles V, who was initially reluctant to recognize the duchy. Following the pope's death, his successor Julius III, who was closely aligned with the emperor, sought to offer the duchy to the House of Austria. With few remaining options, Ottavio sought support from France and secured a political agreement with Henry II of France.
Pope Julius III, incensed, issued a threat of excommunication, which Ottavio met with the proposal of establishing an independent Gallican Church. The War of Parma commenced in June 1551, with Gonzaga temporarily occupying parts of the duchy. However, Ottavio emerged triumphant with French support. Furthermore, the Pope, concerned about France's Gallican stance, acquiesced on the issue of Parma and restored diplomatic relations with the King of France. In 1556, the Treaty of Ghent saw Ottavio gain control of Piacenza from Charles V's successor, Philip II of Spain. However, in return for this, he was obliged to grant amnesty to the lords who had been responsible for his father's assassination. The 1559 Treaties of Cateau-Cambrésis subsequently confirmed his possession of these lands.
From an economic standpoint, Ottavio demonstrated a notable degree of frugality. Despite this, the duchy witnessed some significant developments during his reign, including the construction of the Farnese Palace in Piacenza and the Church of SS. Furthermore, he initiated the construction of the Annunziata in Codiponte and the Jesuit College. He proceeded with the policy of weakening the nobility, and in 1582, he issued a decree for confiscating the lands belonging to the Landi family, who had been lords of Piacenza and had participated in his father's assassination. This was justified on the grounds of another attempted regicide.
Three centuries of rule
Upon the death of Ottavio in 1586, his son Alessandro, who held the rank of general in the army of King Philip II of Spain, ascended to the ducal throne. Alessandro was married to Infanta Maria of Portugal, granddaughter of King Manuel I in the male line. He had been raised at the Spanish court and was therefore unfamiliar with his capital. Serving his king, he remained distant from his duchy throughout his life. The future duke participated in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 alongside Marcantonio Colonna and other battles against Muslims in the Balkans. His military actions resulted in his promotion to general commander during the Flemish War, and he also participated in the French Wars of Religion, where he died in 1592 from injuries sustained in battle.
Duke Ranuce I assumed the rule of the Duchy of Parma in 1580, following the death of his predecessor, King Alexander, who had laid claim to the Portuguese crown in 1578. This claim was based on the rights derived from Alexander's mother, Maria, who had died in 1577. Ranuce ruled the duchy with an iron fist for thirty years and was responsible for the economic and urban development of Parma through initiatives such as the construction of the theater at the Palazzo della Pilotta and the establishment of four fortified bastions. In 1599, he married Marguerite Aldobrandini, the niece of Pope Clement VIII. In 1611, he exposed a conspiracy against him and had numerous nobles arrested. A trial resulted in the condemnation of the conspirators to death and the confiscation of their property. The duke died in 1622 at the age of 52.
His son Odoardo, who was only ten years of age, succeeded him. The regency of the duchy was assumed by his mother, Marguerite Aldobrandini, and his uncle, Cardinal Odoardo Farnese. In 1628, Odoardo married Margherita de' Medici, the eldest daughter of Cosimo II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. He relocated his court closer to France under the influence of , a French official in the employ of the Farnese family, who was suspected of acting on behalf of Richelieu. In 1636, Odoardo initiated hostilities with Spain, a venture that proved to be exceedingly challenging for him. The intervention of the Pope and the Grand Duke of Tuscany facilitated the conclusion of a peace treaty on 4 February 1637, which concluded the conflict and secured the future of the duchy. He was compelled to disavow his alliance with France and reestablish diplomatic relations with Madrid. As a consequence of the financial obligations incurred through the Monti Farnesiani loans, the duchy of Castro was pledged as collateral. In 1641, the failure to repay the debt and his refusal to cede the duchy of Castro to the Barberini family, his primary creditors, resulted in the initial War of Castro against Pope Urban VIII, who was also a member of the Barberini family. In 1644, the intervention of Cardinal Mazarin's France facilitated the conclusion of peace between the two belligerents through the Treaty of Venice, signed on 31 March. This treaty confirmed the retention of Castro within Farnese hands. Édouard died in 1646.
His son Ranuce II, then sixteen years of age, ascended to the throne in his father's stead. During his reign, in 1659, the Farnese permanently lost Castro after a second war against Pope Innocent X. Ranuce II entered into three marriages. His first marriage was to Margaret Yolande of Savoy in 1660, who died three years later. He intended to regain Castro through this marriage. He subsequently entered into matrimony with Isabella d'Este on two further occasions, and with Maria d'Este on one additional occasion. Ranuce pursued a policy of maintaining equilibrium between France and Spain and expanded the duchy by acquiring the territories of Bardi and Compiano. These, being former imperial fiefs, aroused Austria's ambitions, leading to its invasion in 1691. An occupying force settled at the duchy's expense. Ranuce died in 1694, a year after his son Odoardo II, who was supposed to succeed him.