The Qatari–Abu Dhabi War was a series of territorial disputes and military conflicts between Qatar, led by Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani, and the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, under Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan. From 1881 to 1893, tensions were escalated through a series of raids and counter-raids between the two emirates. The first conflicts between the two occurred in 1881, during the battles of Baynunah, Suwaihan and Al-Marsaf.
The Battle of Khannour, which occurred on Abu Dhabi territory from January to February 1889, saw the climax of the war, with hundreds of reported casualties. The conflict ended in 1893 following British mediation.
Background In the late 19th century, the Persian Gulf was undergoing significant political and economic changes. This period was characterized by shifting power dynamics, emerging state structures, and the influence of imperial powers in the region. During this time, both Qatar and Abu Dhabi were in the process of consolidating their political structures. Qatar was under the leadership of Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani, who had been gradually asserting Qatar's independence since 1868. Sheikh Jassim officially took control of Qatar in 1878, following the death of his father. Meanwhile, Abu Dhabi was ruled by Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan, who had assumed power in 1855. Under his leadership, Abu Dhabi had become one of the most important emirates in the region.
Qatar had aligned itself more closely with the Ottoman Empire. In 1871, Qatar came under Ottoman protection, with Jassim accepting the position of Ottoman kaymakam (district governor). In contrast, Abu Dhabi, along with other Gulf emirates, had signed maritime peace treaties with Britain, which gave the British significant influence in the region.
Economic factors also played a role in shaping the conflict. The traditional pearl fishing economies of the Gulf were in decline during this period, leading to shifts in economic power and increased competition for resources. This economic pressure exacerbated existing tensions between the two emirates.
The conflict was further fueled by longstanding territorial disputes between Qatar and Abu Dhabi. The two emirates shared a border region that was poorly defined, leading to frequent disputes. Control over grazing lands, fishing grounds, and pearl banks was crucial for both emirates. These ill-defined borders and competing claims over resources were a constant source of friction between Qatar and Abu Dhabi.
Causes Qubaisat secession and territorial dispute
In 1869, the Qubaisat, a subordinate branch of the Bani Yas tribe of Abu Dhabi, seceded under Sheikh Butay bin Khadim. They settled in Khor Al Adaid, an inlet on the southeast Qatari Peninsula disputed between Qatar and Abu Dhabi. This move occurred at the end of the pearl-fishing season, leaving many debts unsettled in Abu Dhabi. The Qubaisat's settlement at Khor Al Adaid was seen as a direct challenge to Zayed's authority, as they renounced their allegiance to their hereditary chief.
British authorities attempted to mediate between Zayed and the Qubaisat. However, these efforts were undermined by Qatar's leaders. Sheikh Mohammed bin Saeed Bukawarah protested against the mediation attempts and claimed that the Qubaisat owed him 70,000 krohns. Jassim, similarly, opposed mediation and claimed 4,000 krohns against the Qubaisat. He also obtained an Ottoman flag for the Al Adaid settlers, attempting to transfer their allegiance to the Ottoman Empire.
Khor Al Adaid quickly became a focal point of contention. Zayed wanted to attack Khor Al Adaid to reassert his authority, but was constrained by the maritime truce enforced by the British. He appealed to the British Political Resident in the Persian Gulf for permission to proceed by sea against Khor Al Adaid, arguing that the settlement was detrimental to Abu Dhabi's prosperity and provided refuge for debtors fleeing their creditors.
In 1878, the British Government of India granted Zayed permission to assert his authority over Khor Al Adaid. A British warship, HMS Teazer, was dispatched to oversee the operation. However, the Qubaisat fled to Al Bidda before Zayed's arrival, where they were welcomed by Qatar's sheikhs.
In May 1881, Sheikh Jassim wrote to the Political Resident requesting permission to occupy Khor Al Adaid, claiming it as part of Qatar. This claim was rejected by British authorities, who ruled that Khor Al Adaid was under Abu Dhabi's jurisdiction.
Alleged piracy According to the British, the area around Khor Al Adaid had become a haven for piracy. Bedouin tribes, including the Bani Hajer and Al Murrah, extended their operations southward from Qatar. The Qubaisat settlers also became implicated in irregular maritime activities.
A significant incident occurred in 1876 when a baghlah (a type of boat) belonging to an Abu Dhabi subject was attacked near Jassim's residence in Al Bidda. The attack resulted in two deaths, one injury, and the theft of property valued at 529 dollars, as well as an African slave valued at 120 dollars. In response, Zayed demanded compensation of 2,679 dollars for the stolen property and blood money for the casualties.
Other select instances of piracy, particularly at Khor Al Adaid, are given by historical British accounts during the summer of 1876: This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. "In the month of August a rumour reached the Officiating Resident, to the effect that another party of the Beni Hajir had seized a boat belonging to the Oman pearl divers at Odeid." "In the same month the Chief of Aboothabee complained that two of his boats, which had anchored in the Bay of Odeid, had been attacked from the shore, one man being wounded, and one killed." "Again in August a section of the Beni Hajir, residing at Odeid, under the rule of Sheikh Salim bin Shafee, embarked from that port, and made an attack upon a boat belonging to Guttur, from which property to the value of 400 was plundered."
External intervention The conflict was exacerbated by broader regional dynamics. Jassim sought Ottoman support, while Zayed relied on British mediation. This reflected the emerging imperial rivalries in the Gulf region. British attempts at imposing themselves in the conflict were primarily directed at limiting the growing influence of the Ottomans.
Timeline 1881 The first fighting between the two occurred in 1881, during the battles of Baynunah, Suwaihan and Al-Marsaf.
In December 1881, a significant incident occurred that further exacerbated tensions between Abu Dhabi and Qatar. Members of the Bani Hajer and other Bedouin tribes from the vicinity of Qatar conducted a raid in the territory of Abu Dhabi, resulting in the theft of several camels. These stolen animals were subsequently sold in Al Bidda, Qatar. This event prompted Sheikh Zayed of Abu Dhabi to consider retaliatory action. In response, Sheikh Jassim of Qatar mobilized support from the Arabs of Al Bidda and Al Wakrah. However, diplomatic efforts were not entirely abandoned. Jassim dispatched Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab to Zayed in an attempt to negotiate. Diplomacy ultimately proved successful, as the two leaders reached an understanding, temporarily averting further hostilities.
1885 In June 1885, the tensions between Qatar and Abu Dhabi resurfaced through diplomatic channels. Jassim addressed a formal communication to the Political Resident, reiterating his longstanding grievances against Zayed. This correspondence not only revisited previous points of contention but also revived Sheikh Jassim's proposal to occupy and repopulate Khor Al Adaid, a territory of strategic importance in the region. The British authorities, represented by the Political Resident, responded to Jassim's overture with a clear reiteration of the established governmental position regarding Khor Al Adaid. The Sheikh was explicitly requested to abandon his intentions concerning this territory.
Regarding Jassim's claims against Abu Dhabi, the Political Resident adopted a procedural approach. Jassim was invited to submit detailed particulars of his grievances, with the assurance that these would be subject to a thorough investigation to assess their merits. However, Jassim did not follow through with this request, failing to provide the requested specifics.
In the summer of 1885, a series of incidents further escalated tensions between the domains of Zayed and Jassim. The Al Bu Shaar branch of the Manasir tribe, affiliated with Zayed, conducted a raid on Bedouin encampments loyal to Jassim at Nuaija, a watering place in proximity to Al Bidda. This incursion resulted in the abduction of three female slaves.
In response to this transgression, Sheikh Jassim authorized retaliatory action, specifically instructing the Bani Hajer tribe to target Zayed's subjects, with particular emphasis on the Al Bu Shaar tribe. Subsequently, the Bani Hajer, in coalition with the Al Murrah tribe, executed a counter-raid into Bani Yas territory, taking six camels. One of these camels was the property of Zayed himself, while the others belonged to Sheikh Hasher bin Maktoum of Dubai. The stolen camels were transported to Al Bidda, where Jassim, in a diplomatic maneuver, presented two of them to the Sheikh of Bahrain, receiving a mare in reciprocation.
Zayed demanded the return of the camels from Jassim, citing the raiders' sanctuary in Al Bidda as justification. Jassim, countered with an allegation that the previous year, Mahomed bin Jeair of the Manasir tribe had similarly sought refuge in Bani Yas territory after plundering Qatari subjects. The situation deteriorated into a series of hostile exchanges and military preparations. However, diplomatic channels remained open, with Nasir bin Mubarak traveling to Abu Dhabi at Jassim's behest to negotiate a settlement. The resulting arrangement stipulated that Jassim would assume responsibility for any transgressions committed by his tribesmen against Zayed's subjects. Nevertheless, this agreement proved ineffective. When Zayed attempted to invoke its terms, Jassim responded by presenting a list of longstanding grievances against the Qubaisat tribe, effectively nullifying the arrangement. Consequently, hostilities persisted between the two sheikhs.
1866 In July 1886, Zayed formally lodged a complaint with the British Political Resident, alleging that Jassim had been engaging in a campaign to undermine Abu Dhabi's economic interests. Specifically, Zayed accused his counterpart of corresponding with inhabitants of islands under Abu Dhabi's jurisdiction who were indebted due to pearl fishing activities. The alleged objective of this communication was to encourage these debtors to repudiate their financial obligations, potentially destabilizing Abu Dhabi's economic structure.
Concurrently, Zayed brought a letter he had received from Jassim to the Political Resident's attention. This correspondence enclosed a communication from the commander of the Turkish steamer Zuhâf and conveyed Jassim's assertion that he had received authorization from Ottoman authorities to reconstruct Al Adaid. In his communication to the Political Resident, Zayed expressed strong opposition to Jassim's actions in general and specifically objected to the plans regarding Al Adaid.
The British response to these developments was swift and aimed at maintaining the status quo. Zayed was instructed to refrain from responding to these communications, while Jassim received another admonition against any interference with Al Adaid. When approached on the matter, the Ottoman authorities in Basra disavowed and censured the actions of the Zuhâf's commander in corresponding directly with the Chief of Abu Dhabi.
1887