The Linnaean Herbarium (herbarium code: LINN) is a historically significant collection of over 13,000 dried plant and lichen specimens assembled by the Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). Housed at the Linnean Society of London since 1828 (and at its current location in Burlington House since 1873), it forms the foundation of modern botanical nomenclature and serves as the primary reference for Linnaeus's 1753 work Species Plantarum, the starting point for modern plant taxonomy. The herbarium includes specimens from Linnaeus's botanical explorations and global collaborations, spanning early Swedish collections to acquisitions from the Americas, Asia, and Africa.
The collection, begun during Linnaeus's student days, expanded considerably during his time in the Netherlands and England. After Linnaeus's death, his son inherited the herbarium, which was sold to English botanist James Edward Smith in 1784. Smith's acquisition and subsequent founding of the Linnean Society of London advanced the Linnaean system globally. The herbarium's organisation remains largely as Linnaeus's son left it in 1783, offering context for interpreting Linnaeus's specific names.
The Linnaean Herbarium is a primary resource for botanical research and for the study of 18th-century scientific practice. Ongoing preservation, documentation, and digitisation initiatives have increased access to the collection for researchers. The herbarium continues to be used in modern botanical nomenclature, as it provides original material or historical context for approximately 5,900 specific names published by Linnaeus. Its continued use in projects such as the Linnaean Plant Name Typification Project reflects its sustained role in contemporary botanical research.
History and significance
Linnaeus started his herbarium as a student at Lund University in 1727–28, collecting about 600 Swedish plants by autumn 1729. The collection grew significantly during his time in Holland and England (1735–38), where he acquired specimens from Virginia, the West Indies, Central America, and various gardens. This period was vital for his botanical development, as he obtained specimens from diverse sources, including George Clifford's garden and John Clayton's Virginian collection (via Johann Gronovius). Linnaeus avidly collected specimens during his 1732 Lapland journey (where he named Linnaea borealis) and trips to Öland, Gotland, and Skåne. He also cultivated plants in the Uppsala Garden from seeds sent from various regions. Despite travel challenges and preservation difficulties, Linnaeus's collections formed the foundation for his extensive botanical work. His network of students, colleagues, and correspondents, including Torbern Bergman, Erik Brander, Johann Reinhold Forster, Pehr Osbeck, Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber, Anders Sparrman, and Domenico Vandelli, contributed specimens from around the world, further enriching his herbarium.
Linnaeus pioneered the practice of keeping herbaria unbound, storing dried plant sheets separately in purpose-built cabinets. This innovation facilitated easy addition, removal, and reorganisation of specimens, significantly influencing 18th-century botanical study methods. His herbarium cabinets were designed to store unbound sheets of dried plants. The specimen paper was relatively small, 12.3 by 8 inches (32 cm x 20.56 cm), and often provided scant information about the collector and collection details. Linnaeus relied on memory, using brief notes or signs to remind himself of a specimen's source.
By 1753, when Linnaeus published Species Plantarum, the herbarium included specimens from southern France, other parts of Europe, Siberia, coastal China, India, southeastern Canada, New York, and Pennsylvania. After 1753, Linnaeus added specimens from South America, Jamaica, China, and the Cape of Good Hope. Lists from 1753, 1755, and 1767 provide some insight into the herbarium's contents, but the collection was not static. Linnaeus continually added to it, and it also suffered losses over the years, making it difficult to identify all original specimens.
After Linnaeus's death in 1778, his herbarium passed to his son, Carl Linnaeus the Younger. When the Carl Linnaeus the Younger died in 1783, the herbarium was sold to English botanist James Edward Smith, fulfilling Linnaeus's wishes. This sale has been a source of regret for Swedish botanists ever since. While the main herbarium went to England, many Linnaean specimens stayed in Sweden. These specimens were often gifts from Linnaeus to friends and disciples. For example, about 30 plants classified by Linnaeus are in the Bergian herbarium at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Carl Linnaeus the Younger also had his own herbarium, including plants he collected and some from his father. After his death, part of this collection (the 'Herbarium parvum') was given to Baron Clas Alströmer, and eventually became part of the Swedish Museum of Natural History collections. Linnaeus organised his herbarium by genera, species, and classes, with specific names written outside. Each species was glued to a half-sheet of paper, and all half-sheets of the same genus were placed in a whole sheet with the genus name on it.
In December 1783, Sara Elisabeth Moræa, Linnaeus's widow, offered to sell his collection to Sir Joseph Banks for 1000 guineas. Banks declined but advised James Edward Smith, a young medical student, who then purchased the herbarium and manuscripts in 1784. The collection, which included three cabinets of herbarium sheets, was shipped to England. According to an illustration in Robert John Thornton's New Illustration Of The Sexual System Of Linnaeus, published during the Napoleonic Wars, the collection's transport to England involved a dramatic pursuit by a Swedish vessel, though this detail may be part of a manufactured narrative celebrating Britain's acquisition of the collections. The acquisition of the collection marked a significant moment in natural history, as it provided the material and social basis for the advancement of the Linnaean system in Britain. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London in 1788, initially meeting at his residence where the collections were housed in their original storage cabinets. These cabinets, though later returned to Sweden, had played a crucial role in preserving the specimens in their original arrangement.
Smith's botanical education began in Norwich with local botanists like Hugh Rose, who introduced him to Linnaeus's works. He later studied at Edinburgh under John Hope, the first to teach the Linnaean system in Scotland. Smith's deep interest in botany and his acquisition of Linnaeus's collections significantly influenced botanical research and education in Britain. Smith extensively used the Linnaean collections in his publications, including English Botany (1790–1814) and Flora Britannica (1800–1804). These publications advanced botanical knowledge and served as valuable references for future taxonomic studies. Smith's ownership of the collections was not without controversy; he was accused by some contemporaries of appropriating Linnaeus's work and passing it off as his own. However, Smith viewed himself as a 'trustee' or 'steward' of national treasures.
Since 1873, the Linnaean Herbarium has been housed by the Linnean Society of London at Burlington House in Piccadilly, following the Society's move to its current location in the South West portion of the courtyard. Prior to this, from 1856 to 1873, it was housed in Old Burlington House. Contrary to belief, it was not gifted or bequeathed to the Society. The Society bought it from the executors of Sir James Edward Smith (1759–1828) to make its contents permanently available to botanical scholars.
The Linnaean Herbarium is fundamental to modern botanical nomenclature, as Linnaeus's 1753 work Species Plantarum serves as the internationally accepted starting point. It provides essential context for interpreting approximately 5,900 Linnaean specific names published in this work.
Linnaeus's pioneering work in botanical data management involved innovative paper-based technologies to handle information overload. He used interleaved books, index cards, and systematic filing systems to catalogue species and maintain extensive notes on various genera. His annotations included details on the medicinal and economic uses of plants, reflecting his broader goal of utilizing natural resources efficiently. Linnaeus's extensive correspondence network across Europe and beyond was important for expanding his collections and updating classifications. His work was foundational for botanical taxonomy and had significant practical applications in agriculture, medicine, and other industries.
Contents
According to Benjamin Daydon Jackson, the Linnaean Herbarium contains 13,832 plant sheets, and several zoological specimens. These specimens represent species from every continent, contributed by about 150 individuals. The herbarium's organisation largely reflects how Linnaeus's son left it in 1783. Specimens are arranged by genus, each given a number. Within each genus, individual sheets are numbered sequentially. Linnaeus designed functional herbarium cabinets with adjustable shelving, allowing for dynamic and flexible organisation to accommodate new discoveries and rearrangements. Specimens are usually authenticated by a number corresponding to the species in the first edition of Species Plantarum (1753). Linnaeus used a unique system to mark specimens acquired after Species Plantarum. Species collected up to the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1759) were marked with capital letters. The second edition of Species Plantarum (1762–63) introduced a new numbering system, which was not applied to the herbarium. The herbarium is internationally recognised by its standard herbarium code LINN, which is used to uniquely identify this collection in scientific literature and databases.
Comparison with other historical herbaria
Linnaeus's innovative approach to specimen management can be better understood compared to other historical collections of the era. Unlike earlier herbaria bound into fixed volumes, Linnaeus's cabinets allowed easy reorganisation and expansion. This innovation provided a model for later herbaria, emphasizing flexibility and adaptability in botanical classification. The Linnaean Herbarium shares similarities with other pre-Linnaean and early 18th-century collections, such as those of William Sherard, Hans Sloane, Paul Hermann, and Francesco Cupani. These collections, like the Linnaean Herbarium, contain specimens from various parts of the world, reflecting the global nature of botanical exploration at the time. However, the Linnaean Herbarium is notable for its larger size and comprehensive scope. It contains about 13,000 specimens, a significant increase compared to other collections of the period. For instance, the herbarium of Paolo Boccone (1633–1704) in Leiden contains 669 samples, Sherard's herbarium has about 20,000 specimens, and Cupani's collection comprises 669 samples focused on Sicilian flora.
The mounting methods used in these herbaria are also comparable. Linnaeus and contemporaries like Sloane and Hermann used strips of paper and glue to mount specimens. Unlike some other collections that underwent significant rearrangements over time, the Linnaean Herbarium remains largely in its original form, making it a particularly valuable resource for understanding 18th-century botanical practices.