The history of Constantinople covers the period from the Consecration of the city in 330, when Constantinople became the new eastern capital of the Roman Empire, to its conquest by the Ottomans in 1453.
Constantinople was rebuilt on the site of Byzantium. Within half a century, thanks to the construction projects of the time, rapid population growth, development of trade and crafts, its status as a capital city, and the efforts of 4th century Roman emperors, Constantinople became one of the largest cities in Europe and the Middle East. The prosperous "megalopolis of the Middle Ages" became the largest political, cultural, and economic center of a vast empire, but it declined over time. After the fall of Rome in the 5th century, Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire for nearly a millennium, preserving a degree of Roman and Hellenistic tradition.The name of this state was "Empire of the Romans", the Latins called it "Romania" and the Ottomans — "The State of the Rums". The terms "Byzantium" and "Byzantine Empire" appeared after the fall of Constantinople. The history of Constantinople in the Byzantine era was filled with popular uprisings and palace intrigues, assassinations of emperors and changes of ruling dynasties, months-long sieges and campaigns against western and eastern neighbors. Until the 8th century, Constantinople was the center of culture and science in medieval Europe.
A characteristic feature of political life in Constantinople was the constant struggle for power between different groups of the aristocracy, army, merchants, and clergy. The elite was an unstable and diverse group. Many nobles were proud that they had been able to work their way up from the bottom of society to the pinnacle of power. Moreover, even the imperial throne could be occupied by a commoner due to conspiracy, love affairs, marriage, military uprising or local rebellion. Emperors could be simple soldiers who worked their way up the ladder. In Constantinople, the contrast between the poverty of the common people and the wealth of the aristocracy, the imperial court, and the clergy was particularly striking. The city was seen as global center of both luxury and poverty.
The Fall of Constantinople in May 1453 marked the final collapse of Byzantium and the transformation of the Ottoman Empire into one of the most powerful states in the world. It sent shock waves throughout Christian Europe and jubilation at the courts of Cairo, Tunis, and Granada. In addition, the destruction of many Roman and Byzantine cultural treasures caused irreparable damage to European culture. In Europe, the image of the Turks became synonymous with all that was cruel and alien to Christianity.
Constantine and his successors
The Roman Emperor Constantine I the Great appreciated the advantageous location of Byzantium on the seaside, at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. Constantine's decision was also influenced by the turbulent situation in Rome itself: the discontent of the nobility and the constant struggle for the throne. The emperor wanted to crown his reforming activities with the creation of a new administrative center of great power. The foundation of the city took place in the fall of 324, and Constantine personally decided to mark its boundaries.According to legend, Constantine took a spear in his hand and led a solemn procession around the circle that marked the ring of the future city walls. A considerable part of the hilly area of the Bosphorus promontory fell within the city limits, and the emperor's cronies remarked that the new capital would be too large. To this, Constantine, confident that his actions at that moment were guided by a higher power, replied that he would "go until someone in front of me stops". The area he demarcated was surrounded by an earthen wall, within which a large building was constructed. By Constantine's order, famous architects, painters and sculptors, the best masons, plasterers and carpenters were brought to Byzantium and exempted from other state duties. Another of his laws, designed to speed up the construction of the capital, obliged all owners of real estate in the cities of Pontus Euxine to acquire at least one house in Byzantium (only when this condition was met could the owners bequeath their property to their heirs).Большая российская энциклопедия. М.: БРЭ, 2010. V. 15. P. 96. .
Constantine encouraged the settlement of the new city from various provinces of the Roman Empire in various ways, granting them special conditions and benefits, and many imperial dignitaries were forcibly transferred here.According to the legend, the emperor sent the nobles who did not want to move to Byzantium on a campaign against Persia, taking the rings with the name seals from all of them. The families of these nobles were then sent sealed letters with instructions to move to Byzantium. While the letters reached their addressees and the families were on their way, Constantine ordered the construction of houses for each nobleman, which were exact copies of their Roman dwellings. When the dignitaries and generals returned from the campaign, their families were waiting for them in Byzantium in new houses that did not differ from the previous ones. Constantine established the rule that all settlers who purchased property in the new capital were entitled to free grain, oil, wine, and firewood. This so-called "food bonus" lasted for about half a century and played a major role in the influx of artisans, sailors, and fishermen into Byzantium. In addition to attracting human resources, Constantine also provided for the decoration of the city, for which magnificent works of art were brought to Byzantium from all corners of the vast empire — from Rome and Athens, Corinth and Delphi, Ephesus and Antioch.
On May 11, 330, a grand ceremony was held to inaugurate the capital of the Roman Empire, called New Rome (the text of the imperial edict issued on the same day was carved on a marble column).Since then, residents have celebrated the city's founding day every year on May 11. The main celebrations took place in the horse racing and included performances by artists and sporting events, including the chariot races favored by the people. During these celebrations, the Christian clergy, as well as the still influential pagan priesthood among the representatives of the Greek colleges, became more prominent in Constantine the Great's retinue. Although Christianity was becoming the dominant religion, the emperor, and himself did not immediately break with the old traditions,Constantine was not officially baptized until his deathbed by Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia. did not hinder the activities of the priests (however, during his reign, many pagan temples of ancient Byzantium were converted into churches and public buildings). On the occasion of the consecration of the new capital, a coin was minted depicting Constantine in a battle helmet with a spear in his hand. In honor of the city's patroness, the mother of God, a stele of red porphyry on a white marble base was erected.This monument was especially honored by Constantine, and whenever the whole imperial retinue passed it, they dismounted from their horses. However, the name "New Rome" did not catch on, and soon the capital was called Constantinople — the city of Constantine.
During Constantine's reign, Hagia Sophia, Hagia Irene, Saint Agathius's Church on the Golden Horn and Saint Mocius's Church outside the city walls were built. Along with the first churches in Constantinople, the impressive Temple of Fortuna was built, several sanctuaries were renovated, and the huge column brought from the Roman Temple of Apollo was erected, crowned with a statue of Constantine himself in the image of Apollo (or Helios) greeting the rising sun.The emperor's shield and sword, as well as various Christian relics, were embedded in the base of the column. At the end of the 11th century, a lightning strike destroyed the statue and the upper part of the column. From Delphi was brought a bronze "Serpent Column", which served as the foot of the famous golden tripod, and in Constantinople decorated the arena of the Hippodrome.During the Ottoman period, the three snake heads that adorned the column were chipped off. Today, one of them is kept in the Istanbul Archaeology Museum. From Rome came the famous monument to the goddess Athena Pallada, which the Romans had removed from Athens in due time (its column was turned into a pedestal for statues representing Constantine and then his successors). In the city, to which the emperor gave the municipal structure of Rome, was established the Senate, henceforth here was one of the consuls. An impressive flow of Egyptian grain, previously used for the needs of the population of Rome, was diverted to Constantinople.Большая российская энциклопедия. М.: БРЭ, 2010. V. 15. P. 97. .
By the end of Constantine's reign, the new capital was spread over seven hills on the shores of the Bosphorus like Rome,In modern Istanbul, the first hill is Hagia Sofia, Sultanahmet Mosque and Topkapi Palace; the second hill is Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Grand Bazaar and Column of Constantine; on the third hill are the main buildings of Istanbul University; on the fourth is the Fatih Mosque, on the fifth is the Selim I Mosque; on the sixth is the Mihrimah Sultan Mosque and the Edirnekapı district, the seventh hill stretches from the Aksaray district to the Theodosius Walls. there were built about 30 palaces and temples, more than four thousand significant residential buildings for the nobility, a hippodrome, a circus and two theaters, more than 150 baths, more than a hundred bakeries, eight aqueducts, and thousands of houses for the common people. North of the central square Augustaion, on the site of the acropolis of ancient Byzantium, was the Capitol, where pagan temples and shrines to various gods were preserved until the end of the 4th century. Under Constantine and his successors, who actively promoted local sailors and traders, Constantinople's navy grew in size, and the city regained its ancient Byzantine commercial glory.
The process of destruction and decline of the Roman Empire intensified after the death of Constantine the Great in Nicomedia in 337. A desperate struggle for power broke out between Constantine's successors, one of the most dramatic episodes of which was a mutiny of the troops stationed in the capital, organized by Constantius II. He took advantage of the discontent in the Byzantine army over the uncertainty that had arisen after Constantine had bequeathed great power to his three sons (Constantius II, Constantine II, and Constans) and two nephews (Dalmatius the Younger and Hannibalian the Younger). A bloody massacre took place in Constantinople, during which many of the late emperor's relatives were killed, including his two favorite nephews (only Constantius Gallus and Julian, sons of also killed Flavius Julius Constantius, younger brother of Constantine the Great, could be saved). Constantius held power over the western part of the Roman Empire for more than a decade, but died in 350 in a battle with the usurper commander Magnus Magnentius. It was not until Constantius II's victory over Magnentius that the empire was restored under one emperor. In 357, the relics of the Apostle Andrew were solemnly transferred from Patras to the newly built Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, where they were placed next to the relics of St. Luke, St. Timothy of Ephesus and the coffin of Constantine the Great (from the time of Constantine's burial until the 11th century, the Church of the Holy Apostles served as the tomb of Byzantine emperors). In 360 near the central square Augusteon was opened the temple, called by the people the Great, — the first predecessor of the modern Hagia Sophia Cathedral.