The Disciple () is a novel by Paul Bourget (1852–1935), published in 1889. It was written between September 1888 and May 1889 and serves as an analysis and educational tool for the new generations. Bourget's work is also a thesis novel, as the author criticizes the role of intellectuals and accuses modern science of replacing religion without offering a moral compass.
As a pivotal work in Bourget's literary career, the novel marks the transition from his focus on psychological analysis and social manners to a more moralistic and Catholic-themed approach. Beginning with The Disciple in 1889, Paul Bourget's exploration of faith ultimately led to his conversion in 1901.
By engaging in dual novel formsthe analytical and the thesisBourget produced a "hybrid" novel with The Disciple. It also signifies a significant shift in the emotional and social life of the novelist: During this period, he gets married and distances himself from his friends (such as Louis Cahen d'Anvers), and his social circle.
Genesis of the novel
Chambige affair
On January 25, 1888, a twenty-two-year-old law student named Henri Chambige was discovered unconscious but alive in a villa in Sidi-Mabrouk, near Constantine. He had been shot twice in the cheek. Next to him lay a thirty-year-old married woman, with several gunshot wounds to her temple. Chambige was accused of murder, claiming that they both intended to end their lives. He admitted to killing her and then attempting suicide. Before the incident, Paul Bourget and Henri Chambige were acquainted, prompting Bourget to consider using the tragedy as inspiration for a novel. He was concerned that modern writers, including himself, might influence young minds negatively. Bourget conducted thorough research for his novel, consulting press reports, court records, and articles from Le Temps and La Gazette des Tribunaux. He also incorporated viewpoints from writers like Maurice Barrès, published in Le Figaro on November 11, 1888, titled The Sensitivity of Henri Chambige
Throughout his life, Bourget never admitted that he based the character of Greslou on Chambige. Several of Paul Bourget's biographers (such as J. Patin, Albert Autin and Albert Feuillerat, his brother-in-law) echo the novelist's denials of the supposed influence of this resounding affair on his novel ().Despite the author's denials, the press suggests that the link between the case and the novel is clear. L'Illustration ironically announced in its "prophetic almanac" section on December 1, 1888, a prediction for January 1889: "Mr. Paul Bourget publishes Physiologie de l’assassinat moderne, with a preface letter by Mr. Henri Chambige [sic]." However, he extensively drew inspiration from the Sidi-Mabrouk affair, leading to a shift in the novel's focus. Originally titled Adrien Sixte, the novel quickly centers around Greslou/Chambige's confession, occupying three-fifths of the volume. The news story of the assize court drama gains significance, evolving into a "great trial of the intellect," with Bourget positioning himself as a moral guide for the new generations.
Bourget also faced criticism for drawing parallels between the mysterious death of Archduke Rudolf and Marie Vetsera at Mayerling and the events in The Disciple.
Political context and the boulangism crisis
In 1887, the Third Republic faced significant turmoil as hostility towards the parliamentary system increased after the Daniel Wilson and the resultant resignation of president Jules Grévy. The threat of General Boulanger to march on Paris added to the tension. Bourget harbored a profound antipathy towards the Republican and Boulangist factions, exhibiting a similar disdain and criticism towards each., , and University Library of Fels, Catholic University of Paris, diaries of Paul and Minnie Bourget. August 23, 1888.
This situation illustrates the "terrifying pessimism" of the novelist, as echoed by Henry Bordeaux in his portrayal of his friend. and These events firmly establish the novelist's belief that the Republic is synonymous with wastefulness and that universal suffrage leads to chaos. The novel also subtly praises the monarchy through the character of Count André de Jussat-Randon. Bourget's novels frequently serve as critiques of the Republic. The year after The Disciple was published, Bourget wrote Un cœur de femme, another work that prominently displays his disdain for universal suffrage.
Manuscript
The manuscript of The Disciple was part of the Marquis du Bourg de Bozas library collection for a long time. Until 1891, the author also shared his manuscripts with acquaintances and friends. The marquis was devoted to bibliophilia due to a biographical accident: he was the heir of Charles Baudelaire's lawyer and a bibliophile himself: Gustave Louis Chaix d'Est-Ange. Paul Bourget's will forbade the publication of his unpublished works and diaries ("Hide your life [sic]", said the writer). The original manuscript of this significant work was acquired by the National Library of France in 1996 (through a Drouot sale on November 28, 1996), to enhance the Paul Bourget collection donated in 1989 (Allocation Number of Funds [N.a.f.] 19749 – 19771).A different date of entry into the national collections of the manuscript is given by Antoine Compagnon: Drouot sale, February 5, 1993.
Paul Bourget included preparatory sketches for his novel in this manuscript, providing insight into its genesis. These sketches, contained in a 31 × 23 cm cover, serve as the scaffolding of the novel and aid in its genetic editing. Bourget refers to them as plans and "anatomies." Originally written for the Nouvelle Revue, the draft is divided into sections rather than chapters. The plans and anatomies offer a detailed inventory of the characters' moral traits. However, Bourget struggled with visualizing his characters' physical forms and resorted to drawing their profiles on separate sheets. In the case of the final scene in The Disciple, which involves a technical description of a trial procedure, Bourget wrote the scene in the presence of a deputy to ensure accuracy and avoid procedural errors.
Summary
In 1885, the philosopher Adrien Sixte was visited by a twenty-year-old man, Robert Greslou, who presented him with a high-quality manuscript. Initially enthusiastic about the atheism of the deterministic psychologist Sixte, Robert Greslou goes to Auvergne to work as a tutor for the Marquis de Jussat-Randon. He tries to apply his master's experimental method to Charlotte de Jussat, a young virgin from the Auvergne nobility.
Two years later, the marquis's daughter, who was in love with the young man, realized that their relationship was merely a scientific experiment for the young tutor and devoid of genuine love. She took her own life by consuming the poison that her lover had purchased. Robert Greslou was accused of her murder and subsequently imprisoned. He chose to remain silent and did not defend himself against the accusation. While in his cell, he wrote a lengthy confession to Adrien Sixte, presented as a flashback, which forms the novel's first part. The judge, questioning the extent to which the philosopher's influence may have corrupted his disciple's moral compass, summoned the thinker for further inquiry.
Initially, Adrien Sixte's first reaction is to absolve himself, but as he reads his disciple's confession, he ends up recognizing that the young student did find in his works the reasons that led him to act in this way. Greslou, wanting to make amends to Charlotte's brother, rushes towards him, but Count André de Jussat, following the moral code of honor, executes the young student.
Characters
Adrien Sixte Adrien Sixte, a thinker, scientist, and monist like Hippolyte Taine, challenges the existence of matter. He is also a psychologist, following in the footsteps of Théodule Ribot, and drawing inspiration from Émile Littré. The philosopher Sixte dedicates his life to his ideas, rejecting religious compromises. However, he acknowledges his writings may have influenced Greslou's tragic decision when questioned by the examining judge. Ultimately, he reconsiders his stance on religion in the final pages of the narrative.
Robert Greslou Robert Greslou, a disciple of Adrien Sixte, is the novel's central character. He is a depraved, young intellectual who has lost faith and converted to deterministic theories. Bourget seeks to discredit him in the eyes of a certain youth. He instills in Charlotte love and then the vertigo of destruction. Greslou is lucid and mocks moral and social values such as Good, Evil, Homeland, and Justice. His influences include Alfred de Musset, who instilled doubt in him; Stendhal, who presented the unsettling example of Julien Sorel; and even Spinoza, who provided troubling justification for Greslou's negative tendencies.
Count André de Jussat Charlotte de Jussat's brother is a cavalry officer who is noble, royalist, and Catholic. During a dramatic event, Robert Greslou switches allegiances from his former master, Adrien Sixte, an atheist and determinist, to the cavalry captain, who is expected to embody virtue, honor, and righteousness.
Literary technique
In the early 20th century, a debate between Paul Bourget and Albert Thibaudet centered on the definition of the novel. Bourget, the author of The Disciple, championed the traditional French novel structure, emphasizing the importance of a coherent plot that unfolds through a series of episodes. According to Bourget, each passage in the novel should contribute to the overall outcome, "showcasing a deep understanding of the characters' inner thoughts." The characters in the novel are "carefully selected and strategically utilized to drive the narrative" towards its conclusion.
However, nuances must be brought to this model of the novel as an intellectual demonstration. Indeed, although The Disciple is an edifying novel that informs about the dangers of masterful thinking, Bourget skillfully employs narrative suspense. Despite its didactic tendencies, he is a "remarkable storytellerand an undisputed master of intrigue." NOTE: is the bimonthly magazine of the Oscar Wilde Society in France. This quality allows the novel to be considered an "entertaining" work, as stated by Richard Hibbitt. Hibbitt believes that this dichotomy between a didactic and an exciting novel (Greslou's death is an exciting plot) is due to the influence of Honoré de Balzac. In Nouvelles Pages de critique et de doctrine, the author underscores the significance of this "hybridity of the novel," which is attributable to the convergence of multiple elements, including history, customs, passions, and psychology. He posits that in all of his narratives, these two seemingly contradictory elements: "The fervor of sensibility and the rigor of the scientific thinker—blend harmoniously. Wasn't his genius also a hybrid, composed entirely of irreconcilable faculties?"
The literary technique, borrowed from Balzacian novels, incorporates a blend of history and the "romantic" motif of the power of passion, (as explored in Greslou's study). This duality is reflected in the characters of the narrative: Robert Greslou's initial work, which garners Adrien Sixte's admiration, is a manuscript titled Contribution à la multiplicité du Moi. In his reflections, Sixte ponders whether Greslou harbors a hidden sense of duality, embodying two states or beings within himself.
Themes developed in the novel
Education of the new generations through the psychological novel