This article covers the history of Ottoman architecture from the 19th century up to the end of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century. The 19th century saw an increase of architectural influences from Western Europe in Ottoman culture. The Ottoman Baroque style, which emerged in the 18th century, continued to be evident in the early 19th century under the reigns of Selim III and Mahmud II. Empire style and Neoclassical motifs also began to be introduced around this time. Subsequently, a trend towards eclecticism became prominent in many types of buildings, particularly during the Tanzimat period (1839 and after), as exemplified by the Dolmabaçe Palace and many mosques of this era designed by architects of the Balyan family.
In the late 19th century, an Orientalist fashion mixed neo-Ottoman and other traditional Islamic architectural elements into new buildings, seen in many of the designs by Alexandre Vallaury. Art Nouveau also appeared towards the end of the century, promoted most notably by Raimondo D'Aronco. The last decades of the Ottoman Empire saw the development of a new architectural style that was more rigorously neo-Ottoman and revivalist, often known as the First National Architectural Movement, by architects such as Mimar Kemaleddin and Vedat Tek.
Background
Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman architecture evolved progressively into what became the classical Ottoman style, which was consolidated in the 16th century under the long tenure of Mimar Sinan as imperial architect. The classical style remained during the 17th century but became less innovative and more repetitive. Cultural shifts in the early 18th century, particularly during the Tulip Period (), triggered a shift away from this style, as the Ottoman ruling class opened itself to Western influence. New decorative trends and new building types became evident in the architecture of this era.
During the 1740s, a new Ottoman Baroque style emerged in its full expression and rapidly grew dominant in imperial architecture. This signaled the final end to the classical style. After the Tulip Period, Ottoman architecture began to openly imitate European architecture, so that architectural and decorative trends in Europe were mirrored in the Ottoman Empire. Changes were especially evident in the ornamentation of new buildings rather than in their overall forms, though new building types were eventually introduced from European influences as well.
Last Ottoman Baroque monuments (early 19th century)
Some of the last clearly Ottoman Baroque monuments to be constructed were those built under Selim III () and Mahmud II (). At the end of the 18th century, one of Selim III's major projects was rebuilding the Eyüp Sultan Mosque between 1798 and 1800. Other family members and high state officials built new monuments in the same area around this time, such as Mihrişah Sultan's charitable complex (1792–1796) and the Tomb of Şah Sultan (1800–1801).
In other trends, Selim III established the monumental barracks as a new and prominent type of building in Istanbul's urban landscape. This took place in conjunction with Selim III's reform attempts, the Nizam-i Cedid ("New Order"), which among other things created a new Western-style army. Selim III built a barracks building for his "New Artillery" regiment in Tophane, near the later site of the Nusretiye Mosque. This was destroyed by fire in 1823 and rebuilt by Mahmud II in 1824. The Selimiye Barracks was built in southern Üsküdar between 1800 and 1803. It was rebuilt in stone by Mahmud II between 1825 and 1828 and further expanded to its current form by Abdulmecid between 1842 and 1853.
The construction of the Selimiye Barracks was followed by the construction of the nearby Selimiye Mosque complex between 1801 and 1805. The complex included the usual mosque dependencies, but more innovative was the construction of factories, shops, and modern facilities such as a printing house, all arranged to form the nucleus of a new neighbourhood with a regular grid of streets. The mosque incorporates a wide imperial pavilion (a small lounge or residence for the sultan) that stretches across its front façade, a feature that appeared in the 18th century (e.g. Beylerbeyi Mosque) but which was further refined here. The prayer hall largely retains a traditional single-domed layout.
From Mahmud II's time, the Tomb of Nakşidil Sultan (1818) is one of the finest Ottoman Baroque tombs and one of the best examples of late Baroque monuments. It also incorporates some influence from the Empire style, which was being introduced in Istanbul around this time. Some of the Baroque mosques from this period feature elliptical domes, such as the small single-domed Küçük Efendi (or Fevziye) Mosque in Istanbul (1825) and the multi-domed Kapı Mosque in Konya (1812).
The Nusretiye Mosque, Mahmud II's imperial mosque, was built between 1822 and 1826 at Tophane. This mosque was the first major imperial work by Krikor Balian. It is sometimes described as belonging to the Empire style, but is considered by art historians Godfrey Goodwin and Doğan Kuban as one of the last Ottoman Baroque mosques. Another art historian, Ünver Rüstem, describes the style as moving away from the Baroque and towards an Ottoman interpretation of Neoclassicism. Goodwin also describes it as the last in a line of imperial mosques that started with the Nuruosmaniye (1748–1755). Despite its relatively small size the mosque's tall proportions creates a sense of height, marking the culmination of a trend that likely began with the Ayazma Mosque (1757–1761).
Empire style (early–mid 19th century) During the reign of Mahmud II (r. 1808–1839) the Empire style, a Neoclassical style which originated in France under Napoleon, was also introduced into Ottoman architecture. This marked the trend towards increasingly direct imitation of Western styles, particularly from France. The purest example of the Empire style in Istanbul is the Tomb of Mahmud II (1840), an imposing octagonal monument designed by Ohannes and Bogos Dadyan. Other examples are the Cevri Kalfa School on Divanyolu Street, dated to 1819, and the tomb and library complex of Hüsrev Pasha in the Eyüp neighbourhood, dated to 1839. The upper section of the Tower of Justice or Divan Tower in Topkapı Palace was also rebuilt in its current form under Mahmud II in 1820, adopting Renaissance and Palladian elements. Empire style motifs, such as colonettes and composite capitals, continued to be widely used throughout the 19th century alongside other styles.
The Hırka-i Şerif Mosque, built between 1847 and 1851 under Abdülmecid I (r. 1839–1861), is a unique religious building in Ottoman architecture which was designed to house the Holy Mantle (Hırka-i Şerif), a relic of Muhammad. (Another mantle and relic, the Hırka-i Saadet, is housed in Topkapı Palace.) Because of this special function, the mosque has an unusual design. It was built and decorated in a purely Empire or Neoclassical style. It is fronted by an imperial pavilion with a somber Neoclassical façade and slender minarets that look like Corinthian columns. This section leads to an octagonal mosque lit by large windows, with a mihrab and minbar fashioned of dark grey marble. The sacred relic is kept inside another smaller octagonal building directly behind the mosque.
Eclecticism (19th century) The Tanzimat reforms began in 1839 under Abdülmecid I () and sought to modernize the Ottoman Empire with Western-style reforms. In the architectural realm, this period resulted in the dominance of European architects and of Ottoman architects with European training. Among these, the Balyans, an Ottoman Armenian family, succeeded in dominating imperial architecture for much of the century. They were joined by European architects such as the Fossati brothers, William James Smith, and Alexandre Vallaury. After the early 19th century, Ottoman architecture was characterized by an eclectic architecture that mixed or borrowed from multiple styles. The Balyans, for example, commonly combined Neoclassical or Beaux-arts architecture with highly eclectic decoration. As more Europeans arrived in Istanbul, the neighbourhoods of Galata and Beyoğlu (or Pera) took on very European appearances.
Palaces
Dolmabahçe Palace
The Dolmabahçe Palace was constructed for Sultan Abdülmecid between June 13, 1843, and June 7, 1856. Construction was finished by 1853 or 1854, but the sultan did not move into the palace until 1856. It replaced the Topkapı Palace as the official imperial residence of the sultan. It was built on a site along the Bosphorus that had been previously occupied by the old Beşiktaş Palace and its gardens, which had been used and expanded by various sultans since the 17th century until its demolition to make room for the current palace. Dolmabahçe Palace was designed by Garabet Balyan, though his son Nikogos was known to collaborate with him and may have designed the Ceremonial Hall and the palace gates. The palace consists mainly of a single building with monumental proportions. These characteristics represented a radical rejection of traditional Ottoman palace design.
The style of the palace is fundamentally Neoclassical but is characterized by a highly eclectic decoration that mixes Baroque motifs with other styles. The monumental gates that lead to the palace grounds are especially ornate and distinguished by highly sculptural and eclectic decoration in stone, marble, and plaster. The decoration of the palace goes beyond the usual eclecticism seen in contemporary Western architecture, as it mixes multiple different styles in the same building. It lacks some consistency and unity as a result. Aside from the European-inspired design, the organization of the palace still reflected a traditional Ottoman division between the selamlık (official section), which occupies the southwestern wing of the palace, and the harem (private section), which occupies the northeastern wing. The two wings of the palace are separated by the Ceremonial Hall, a grand domed hall. The different sections of the palace are also centred around cruciform halls, another feature retained from the Ottoman tradition.
Other residences and pavilions Many other palaces, residences, and pleasure pavilions were built in the 19th century, most of them in the Bosphorus suburbs of Istanbul. The small single-story Ihlamur Pavilion, built in 1849–1855, and the slightly larger two-story Küçüksu Pavilion, built in 1856, were both designed by Nikogos Balyan and feature very ornate façades. They were originally used as recreational pavilions or resting areas and did not contain bedrooms, though bedrooms were later added to the Küçüksu Pavilion when it was used to house foreign dignitaries. The Mecidiye Kiosk in the Fourth Court of Topkapı Palace is another small single-story structure in a similar style, designed by Sarkis Balyan and built in 1840.
The Beylerbeyi Palace, along the shore of the Bosphorus, was designed by Sarkis Balyan and his brother Agop Balyan in a Neoclassical style with eclectic and Orientalist interior decoration. It was completed in 1864–1865 and replaced an earlier structure by Krikor Balyan from the reign of Mahmud II. The palace was used as the sultan's summer residence and as a guest residence for foreign dignitaries. Like Dolmabahçe Palace, its interior is divided into selamlık and harem sections separated by a large central hall.
Soon after this, the Çırağan Palace was commissioned by Sultan Abdülalziz (r. 1861–1876) and completed in 1872. Nikogos or Sarkis Balyan was probably responsible for the design. It has a severe Neoclassical appearance except for the decoration, which is Orientalist and includes carved openwork in the windows. The palace was destroyed by fire in 1910, leaving only the seaside façade standing which was later integrated into a hotel in 1987.
Yıldız Palace