Northern Wu, or Taihu Wu, is the largest subbranch of Wu Chinese, and is spoken in Shanghai, southern Jiangsu, and northern Zhejiang. These languages are noted for their extremely high number of vowels, even compared to some Germanic languages, and highly complex tone sandhi. This article will use Wugniu (Wugniu) and IPA for transcription.

Syllable structure Much like other Sinitic languages, Northern Wu languages almost universally have an initial-final-tone syllable structure. The final can be further split into the glide, nucleus and coda. For the most part, contemporary Northern Wu languages only permit nasals and the glottal stop () in coda position, though there is evidence to suggest that this was not the case in some historical varieties. There are plentiful initials in Northern Wu, more than many other Sinitic languages such as Cantonese or Changshanese, partially due to the preservation of voiced initials, which will be explained in more detail in other sections.

Initials Much like other Wu languages, Northern Wu languages tend to preserve historical voiced initials, which is a feature only found in several other lects along the Yangtze River, such as Old Xiang.

Northern Wu languages' initials are generally similar. The following is a table of all the commonly-found Northern Wu phonemic initials, with their common urban realizations, Wugniu romanization, and example syllables.

+Initial ConsonantsLabialDental/AlveolarPalatalVelarGlottalNasal ⟨m⟩ ⟨n⟩ ⟨gn⟩ ⟨ng⟩ Plosiveplain ⟨p⟩ ⟨t⟩ ⟨k⟩()aspirated ⟨ph⟩ ⟨th⟩ ⟨kh⟩ voiced ⟨b⟩ ⟨d⟩ ⟨g⟩ Affricateplain ⟨ts⟩ ⟨c⟩aspirated ⟨tsh⟩ ⟨ch⟩ voiced ⟨dz⟩ ⟨j⟩ Fricativevoiceless ⟨f⟩ ⟨s⟩ ⟨sh⟩  ⟨h⟩voiced ⟨v⟩ ⟨z⟩ ⟨zh⟩  ⟨gh⟩, ⟨y⟩, ⟨w⟩Lateral ⟨l⟩

Noteworthy omissions Some varieties in Suzhou and Jiaxing have retroflex initials, much like some Mandarin varieties. Compare the following examples.

Beijing Changshu Changzhou Shengzhou 張 zhāng can1 tsan1 tsan1 常 cháng jan2 zan2 dzan2 船 chuán zhe2 zoe2 zoen2

Characteristic preservations and innovations

Northern Wu, much like other Wu varieties, preserves voicing in its initials. The exact mechanism in which this is realized is discussed below.

Again, much like other Wu languages, Northern Wu preserves the Middle Chinese ri initial () as a nasal. Compare the following, where ⟨gn⟩ is used to notate //:

Beijing Guangzhou Xi'an Seoul(Sino-Korean) Shanghai Beilun Anji rì jat6 ěr il gniq8 gniq8 gniq8 yù juk6 yǔ ok gnioq8, gniuq8 gnioq8 gnioq8

Note that here is pronounced in the colloquial pronunciations rather than literary ones.

Palatalization Many Northern Wu varieties have sibilants that undergo palatalization ( [zh]). This process is becoming more common among younger speakers.

Old Suzhou Old Wuxi Shanghai New Suzhou New Wuxi tsin1 tsin1 cin1 cin1 cin1 cin1 cin1 cin1 cin1 cin1 zi2 zi6 zhi6 ji6 ji6 ji2 ji6 ji6 ji6 ji6

Depression

The voiced initials in Northern Wu languages are realised with breathy voice. This functions much like a phonemic depressor and lowers the pitch of the realization. Some linguists, such as Y. R. Chao, transcribe these phones not as voiced consonants, but as voiceless consonants followed by // or //. More recently, potentially due to Standard Mandarin influence, the younger generation has merged the pronunciation of the unaspirated voiceless series with the (breathy) voiced series. However, the functional load of the breathy voice is already relatively low, due to the fact that tonal distribution lends to disambiguation between historically voiced and voiceless syllables. This breathy voice is at times known as "murmur".

Some speakers, particularly in Shanghai, may constrict their throats when pronouncing voiceless (unaspirated) initials to further disambiguate breathy and modal initials. This constriction may result in the pronunciation of an implosive.

Implosives

In various suburban Shanghainese varieties, the unaspirated voiceless series is realised as implosives. This feature appears to also have been in urban (Puxi) Shanghainese, though it is lost today.

Glottal plosive series

The glottal fricatives // and // are phonotactically part of a plosive series with //. Spectral analyses have found that these three phones show three-way differences parallel to stops. Younger speakers also tend to merge with , not , as would be expected if it were phonotatically a fricative. As the has been analyzed as a null initial in the past, it could be said that Northern Wu languages have a three-way null initial contrast.

Finals Finals vary significantly more than initials in Northern Wu languages. As such, only noteworthy phonological and diachronic features will be discussed. For detailed analyses of individual lects, refer to their specific pages.

Characteristic innovations

Ma raising

A feature found in many Wu languages, including Northern Wu, is the raising of the historical ma () rimes. They are typically realised as //, though some lects such as Shanghainese or Wuxinese may raise it even higher and having it merge with //. The exact sets of words that undergo raising varies from lect to lect, though in general, the southern two branches (Linshao and Yongjiang) have more raising than northern ones.

Haimen Qingpu Wuxi Tonglu Ningbo Beijing bo2 bo2 bu2 buo2 bo2 pá dzo2 zo2 zeu2 jiuo2 dzo2 chá gho4 gho6 wu6 wo6 gho6 xià ka1 ka1 ka1 kuo1 ko1 jiā

Notice how the two localities in Zhejiang, Tonglu and Ningbo, both pronounce the word with a raised vowel, whereas those in Jiangsu and Shanghai do not. Northern varieties tend to retain the // value after velars, whereas Linshao and Yongjiang do not.

Hou fronting

Northern Wu lects along the Grand Canal tend to front the Qieyun Middle Chinese rime (ie. Wugniu eu). Y. R. Chao suggested that this is due to influence from Hangzhounese. Chao raises the example of "the dog behind Europe", pronounced as , taken from his native Changzhounese. Compare Standard Mandarin Ōuzhōu hòutóu de gǒu.

Shan and xian rimes

The Northern Wu languages exhibit interesting behaviour regarding Qieyun Middle Chinese shan () and xian () rimes (ie. Wugniu ae). Some varieties lose the nasal coda completely, whereas others retain it. Some also leave some sporadic nasalization. They typically also have abnormally raised, rounded, or fronted vowels and more complex distribution when compared to other lects, thus resulting in noticeable differences. This behaviour is also exhibited in Hangzhounese.

+ Correspondence of vernacular Shanghainese readings with Middle Chinese rime classesModern reflex Historical class Conditions Examples Yunshe () and division () Yun ()iOpen III , , and series; velars Unconditional Open IV , , and series Open III , , , and series Unconditional Closed III most terms of and series and two irregular initial terms eOpen I Sporadic (Historical) dentialveolars Open II Unconditional Closed III Unconditional Open I (Historical) dentialveolars Open II Unconditional Closed I Sporadic labials Closed III series ue Closed I two irregular terms Closed II & Velars Closed III one irregular term oe Open I Velars Open III (Historical) retroflex Open I Velars Open III , and series Closed I series and (historical) dentialveolars Closed II series Closed III and series uoe Closed I Velars Closed II & III & Sporadic ioeClosed III Velars and initial Velars Closed IV Velars

Qieyun description Yixing Kunshan Jiaxing Wuhang Zhoushan Open Grade II sa1 sae1 sae1 sae1 sae1 Closed Grade III va2 vae2 vae2 vae2 vae2 Open Grade III ye2 ie2 ye2 ye2 ghien2 Open Grade IV tie1 thie1 thie1 thie1 thien1 Closed Grade III chioe1 tshoe1 tshoe1 tshae1 tshoen1 Open Grade I ne2 noe2 noe2 nae2 nei2

Frication Several Northern Wu varieties have a very large number of contrastive high vowels. This contrast is typically realised in the form of rounding or frication. This frication can be notated as a lowering or raising of the vowel or as a glide insertion. Typically, frication in non-apical vowels happens to contrast terms with historical nasal codas.

+ Frication contrast in some high front vowelsSyllable Suzhou Changzhou Wugniu IPA Wugniu IPA thie1 thie1 thi1 thi1 cieu1 ciou1 ciu1 ciu1 sy1 sy1 syu1 syu1

Codas

Codas in Northern Wu are relatively simple compared to other Sinitic languages. In most modern Northern Wu varieties, only a single nasal phoneme and a checked coda (typically transcribed ) are permitted in coda position.

Nasal coda

Northern Wu languages typically only have one final nasal phoneme. This is typically realised as , , or a nasalization of the nucleus vowel, typically in free variation.

Checked coda

Aside from nasals, Northern Wu languages typically only permit in coda position, though some modern varieties and historical texts still preserve . This is different to other coastal Southern Chinese languages, as they typically do not merge all checked codas into one category. It is also noteworthy that the coda is often realised as a shortening of the vowel rather than an actual , which contrasts with Oujiang varieties, which typically lengthen checked syllables. Compare the following syllables.

+ Checked-coda terms in various languages Historical coda Edkins(1868) Shanghai Haining(Xiashi) Shangyu Yinzhou Wenzhou Hong Kong Xi'an Tokyo(Go'on) -p lih liq8 liq8 liq7 liq8 lei8, li8, laap6 lǐ ryuu fah faq7 faq7 faq7 faq7 ho7 faat3 fǎ hou -t t’ih thiq7 thiq7 thiq7 thiq7 thi7 tit3 tiě teti t’sih chiq7 chiq7 chiq7 chiq7 tshai7 cat1 qǐ siti -k kók koq7 koq7 koq7 koq7 ko7 gok3 juǒ kaku lok loq8 loq8 loq8 loq8 lo8 lok6 luǒ raku

Tones Tone plays a critical role in Northern Wu and impacts the realisation of both initials and finals. It disambiguates between both monosyllabic words via underlying tone and polysyllabic terms through the use of tone sandhi. Northern Wu languages can theoretically have up to twelve phonemic tones, depending on analysis. These lects can be found in places in Suzhou and Jiaxing, such as Wujiang.

Phonemic tone Phonemic tones in Northern Wu is traditionally analysed based on four historical tone categories, which are further divided in half based on the voicing of the initial. Those that pair with voiceless initials are known as "dark" () tones and the opposite is true for "light" () ones. This yields a total of eight tones. The hypothetical maximum of 12 tones are achieved when aspiration conditions a further tone split through the dark tones.

+ Tone contours of monosyllables in three lects in Wujiang HistoricalCategory Phonation Example words Category Wugniu Songling Tongli PingwangLevel Plain Whole dark level 1 55 55 55 Aspirate Partial dark level 33 33 33 Voiced Light level 2 13 13 24Rising Plain Whole dark rising 3 51 51 51 Aspirate Partial dark rising 42 42 34 Voiced Light rising 4 31 31 23Departing Plain Whole dark rising 5 412 412 513 Aspirate Partial dark rising 312 312 313 Voiced Light rising 6 212 212 213Checked Plain Whole dark rising 7 5 5 5 Aspirate Partial dark rising 3 3 3 Voiced Light rising 8 2 2 2

Note that, unlike Yue languages, the dark checked tone split is conditioned by aspiration, not vowel length.

Although there are Northern Wu lects with a high number of tones, it is also noteworthy that contemporary Shanghainese in particular only has at most five phonemic tones, by merging tones 2 and 4 with 6, and tones 3 with 5. A typical Northern Wu variety has 7–8 tones.

+ Tone categories in Shanghainese Level Rising Departing Checked Voiceless 1 5 7 Voiced6 8

For the most part, light tones can only occur with voiced initials, and dark tones can only occur with voiceless initials. In general, the light counterpart of a dark tone tends to be a lowered (or depressed) equivalent of the dark tone, as explored above. Compare the pronunciations of the dark and light departing tones in the following Wu varieties:

Tone 5 Tone 6 Jiangyin 423 213 Suzhou 513 31 Pinghu 445 13 Haiyan 35 213 Xiaoshan 53 31 Ningbo 44 213 Shanghai 334 113

Neutral tones