The Second Temple period in Jewish history began with the end of the Babylonian captivity and the Persian conquest of the Babylonian Empire in 539 BCE. A new temple to replace the destroyed Solomon's Temple was built in Jerusalem by the returnees, and the Second Temple was finished around 516 BCE. Second Temple Judaism was centered around the religious leadership of the Second Temple, and lasted for six centuries. The Persians were largely tolerant of Judaism. Persian rule lasted for two centuries, but came to an end with the conquests of Macedonia under Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. Judea and the Eastern Mediterranean region came under Greek influence during the resulting Hellenistic period; Hellenistic Judaism blended both Greek and Jewish traditions. Judea was ruled in this period first by the Ptolemaic Kingdom and then by the Seleucid Empire, Greek states formed after the breakup of Alexander's Macedonian empire. The Maccabean Revolt of 167–142 BCE was initially a fight for Judean autonomy against a suppression of traditional Judaism by Seleucid King Antiochus IV, and later sought outright independence from Greek rule. The revolt's success brought about the formation of an independent Hasmonean kingdom of Judea, named for the family which had led the Jewish resistance.

The Hasmoneans ruled until 63 BCE, when they were reduced to client king status as puppets of the Roman Republic. The Hasmonean line was deposed in 37 BCE, and King Herod the Great took control as ruler of the Herodian kingdom, with the approval of Rome. Herod's death in 4 BCE led to both the Herodian Tetrarchy, in which smaller regions were ruled by members of his family, and periods of direct Roman control by the governors of Roman Judea. Direct Roman rule of Judea was generally disliked, and provoked resistance and rebellion. The era came to an end with the First Jewish–Roman War of 66–73 CE. The Jewish revolt against the Roman Empire was unsuccessful, Jerusalem was conquered in 70 CE, and the Second Temple was destroyed.

This timeline focuses both on political events in Judea and the surrounding regions, as well as issues related to wider diaspora Judaism practiced elsewhere. Many of the dates in ancient sources are given in terms of the Seleucid era (SE) and the Ancient Macedonian calendar, which do not always map cleanly to Julian calendar dates, leading to some unavoidable uncertainty.

Persian Empire (538 BCE – 332 BCE)

539 BCE Cyrus the Great of Persia conquers Babylon. The Neo-Babylonian Empire falls and the First Persian Empire takes control of its former territories. Establishment of the Province of Yehud (Judah), part of the satrapy (province) of Eber-Nari.

538 BCE Traditional date of the Edict of Cyrus, a decree said to allow and encourage the Jews of the Babylonian captivity to return to Judea. Regardless of whether such an edict directly addressing the Jews existed, Persian religious policy allowed for local religions, including Judaism, to practice undisturbed as long as they do not foment rebellion. Possible mission of Sheshbazzar, an enigmatic figure described in Ezra 1. He is credited with returning the temple vessels to Jerusalem, and possibly also being a governor who laid the foundations for the temple in a quoted document in Ezra 5.

538–332 BCE At unknown points during the Persian period, various books are written or finalized (if based on earlier, lost material). These include the Book of Malachi, the Books of Chronicles, the Book of Haggai, and the Book of Zechariah. More speculatively, the Book of Jonah, the Book of Ruth, the Song of Songs, and the Book of Job may have been written in the Persian period. Some sections of the Book of Isaiah, notably the third part (chapters 56–66), are probably written. The first two chapters of the Book of Joel are probably written. The date of the final two chapters of Joel is contested, but possibly were also written in the Persian period. Chapters 1–9 of the Book of Proverbs are probably written as a prologue, although the rest of the book likely already existed in some form. The proposed priestly source (also known as "P") in the documentary hypothesis makes additions and revisions to the five books of the Torah (Pentateuch), with knowledge of the post-exilic period. The setting of the Book of Esther.

537–520 BCE Zerubbabel is appointed governor of Yehud. He is said to have led a group of Jewish returnees from Babylon to Yehud. Provisional work on a new temple starts, but is quickly stopped.

525 BCE Persian conquest of Egypt: Cambyses expands the Persian Empire further beyond Yehud.

A Jewish military colony and Jewish temple at Elephantine is established, probably by Cambyses to place Persian allies to defend the southern border of Egypt. It is destroyed by worshippers of Khnum in 410 BCE, and while rebuilt a few years afterward, it fades in importance. Later archaeologists find various papyri related to Elephantine preserved by the dry desert climate, making Elephantine one of the better-recorded places of Jewish worship of the era.

522–486 BCE Reign of Darius I as shahanshah.

520–516 BCE Building of the new temple, the Second Temple, starts in earnest, partially due to the goading of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. Setting of the Book of Haggai and the Book of Zechariah. Joshua, son of Jehozadak, of the Zadokite line, becomes High Priest of the newly built Temple.

465–424 BCE Reign of Artaxerxes I.

458–457 BCE Mission of Ezra the Scribe, who takes another group of returnees from Babylon to Judea with the approval of King Artaxerxes in the seventh year of his reign (if this reference is to Artaxerxes I).

445–433 BCE Mission of Nehemiah, a member of Artaxerxes's administration who requests leave to go to Yehud and rebuild it, possibly after some unrecorded disaster in Jerusalem at a point prior. He embarks upon a campaign to purge Judea of foreign influence and builds a wall around Jerusalem.

According to Josephus, at some point in this period, an incident occurs where High Priest Johanan murders his brother Jesus inside the Temple; general Bagoses (possibly the same person as Bagoas, if a later date is assumed) punishes the crime and imposes a seven-year tribute on Judea.

404–359 BCE Reign of Artaxerxes II.

397 BCE The alternative proposed date of the mission of Ezra the Scribe (if he served under Artaxerxes II).

400–300 BCE Ezra–Nehemiah (Book of Ezra and Book of Nehemiah) is written. An early Hebrew form of 1 Esdras, an alternative account, is also possibly created.

359–338 BCE Reign of Artaxerxes III.

Macedonian conquest (332 BCE – 301 BCE)

332 BCE Alexander the Great conquers Syro-Palestine. According to a Jewish tradition, Alexander visits Jerusalem, corresponds with the Jewish high priest, praises Judaism, and makes a sacrifice to the God of Israel. The tradition is considered legendary and not historical, however.

331 BCE Alexander's appointed governor of Syria, a person named Andromachus, is killed, possibly in a revolt by Samaritans. The assassins are executed and the city of Samaria is captured, and a colony of Macedonian military settlers are sent to live there.

323–301 BCE Alexander the Great dies. His generals partition the Macedonian empire between them. Wars of the Diadochi: Alexander's feuding generals fight each other for control. Little is known of affairs of Judea in this period, but it was fought over and suffered. General Ptolemy's forces triumph at the nearby Battle of Gaza (312 BCE), but are forced to retreat from the Antigonid prince Demetrius after a loss in Syria, and burn many cities in the Palestine region in the retreat (Joppa, Acre, Gaza), giving the region back to the Antigonids. Ptolemy officially claims the titles of basileus (king) and pharaoh in 305 BCE. He retakes most of the Palestine region without a fight in 302–301 BCE. The region is awarded to Seleucus after a settlement among the victors at the Battle of Ipsus, but Ptolemy ignores the settlement and refuses to hand it over. There is a migration of Jews from Palestine to Egypt amid the chaos, possibly prompted by Ptolemy.

Ptolemaic Kingdom (301 BCE – 199 BCE)

301–200 BCE Coele-Syria, including Judea, is ruled by Ptolemaic Egypt. The Seleucid Empire, claiming that the region was awarded to Seleucus, attempts to conquer the region several times during the Syrian Wars. Hellenistic Judaism slowly arises, a result of a gradual process of hellenization as Greek culture and language spread. It blends both Greek and Jewish cultural and religious traditions. Origin of the Septuagint: During this century, important Jewish writings begin to be translated into Greek for Hellenistic Jews whose first language is Greek.; . Book of Tobit is probably written. It is possible it dates from even earlier, however. The Book of Ecclesiastes (Hebrew: Qohelet) and the initial sections of the Book of Enoch are written at some point in this period. The Aramaic Levi Document, a Jewish predecessor of the Christian Testament of Levi, is possibly written. The Tobiad clan becomes wealthy as tax agents for the Ptolemies.

259 BCE Zenon of Kaunos, a Ptolemaic minister of finance, tours the Palestine region; his compiled documents ("Zenon papyri") are later discovered in the 20th century, and are some of the rare surviving material on Jews in the region.

221–204 BCE Reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator in Egypt. His reign is the setting of the book 3 Maccabees, which describes a persecution of Egyptian Jews by Philopator after he returned from the Battle of Raphia (217 BCE); the historicity of such an event is highly suspect, however, and it is described nowhere else. Another source, the "Raphia Decree", indicates Ptolemy IV did go on a tour of shrines in the Syro-Palestine region, and he may well have stopped at Jerusalem's Second Temple.

Probable term of Simon II as High Priest.

202–199 BCE Fifth Syrian War: The region changes hands several times as Ptolemaic and Seleucid forces battle for control of Coele-Syria.

Seleucid Empire (199 BCE – 141 BCE)

200 BCE At the Battle of Panium (also known as the Battle of Paneas), the Seleucid army decisively defeats the Ptolemaic army. Antiochus III and the Seleucid army conquers Jerusalem, defeating the Ptolemaic garrison led by Scopas. Antiochus III makes a decree guaranteeing privileges allowed to Jerusalem's elites and Temple personnel.

200–100 BCE The Letter of Aristeas is written.;

Book of Sirach (Greek: Ecclesiasticus) by Jesus ben Sira is written.

187–175 BCE Seleucus IV Philopator rules as king. At some point, his minister Heliodorus attempts to tax the Second Temple for money after hearing rumors of its wealth, but fails. Onias III serves as High Priest.

September 175 BCE Antiochus IV Epiphanes ascends to the Seleucid throne. Shortly after, Onias III is replaced by his brother Jason as High Priest by Antiochus IV. Jason obtains permission to found a Hellenistic community in Jerusalem.

Antiochus IV visits Jerusalem, where he receives an enthusiastic welcome from Jason.

Menelaus is appointed High Priest. Former High Priest Jason flees into exile in Ammon, possibly to Tobiad territory.

Former High Priest Onias III is killed at Daphne, near Antioch.

170–169 BCE Sixth Syrian War: Antiochus IV Epiphanes defeats Ptolemaic Egypt in campaign.

168 BCE Battle of Pydna: Roman troops under Aemilius Paullus win a crushing victory over the Macedonian army, break the power of the Antigonid dynasty, and conquer Macedonia. The defeat of this rival further increases Roman sway and influence in the Eastern Mediterranean. Sixth Syrian War: Antiochus Epiphanes returns to Egypt for a second campaign, but leaves in July 168 BCE after a Roman show of support for the Ptolemies.